1. Introduction
There are 2 types of engineers in Belgium, namely industrieel ingenieur and burgerlijk ingenieur. Industrieel ingenieurs are educated at "hogescholen". Burgerlijk ingenieurs are educated at universities. The studies of industrieel ingenieur require 4 years and consist of 2 cycles of 2 years each. The duration of studies of burgerlijk ingenieur is 5 years (first cy-cle of 2 years, a second cycy-cle of 3 years).
About 23,000 students were enrolled for industrieel and burgerlijk ingenieur for the academic year 1997-1998 (statistics of 31 Oktober 1997), 14,200 for industrieel and 8,800 for burgerlijk ingenieur. The hogescholen of the Flemish Community have the largest number of industrieel ingenieurs (8,900) . The French Community on the other hand has the highest number of burgerlijk ingenieurs (5,200).
In Flanders the difference between "university" and "hogeschool" (see below) is defined by decree. The problem of translating this terminology from Dutch into other equivalent words in other languages, especially English, is set against this background.
According to the European Directive of 21 December 1988 on degree equivalence, a one-cycle training at a hogeschool represents a full "university education". After all, it compri-ses 3 years of study following secundary education. Under the influence of this Directive all 2 year studies were brought to 3 years at the beginning of the nineties. Structurally the 3 year studies can be compared to the 3 year bachelor programmes in the anglosaxon countries.
In the international context the word "university" does not refer to a "university", such as we know in the Flemish educational context, but to "higher education". Not translating the word "hogeschool" is not a solution, internationally speaking. "Hogeschool" is too close to the (anglosaxon) "high school" and the Afrikaans "hoùrskool", as the "g" in "hoger" is dropped and "sch" becomes "sk". These are ordinary spelling rules formed in Afrika by distortion of our mother tongue, Dutch, under the influence of dozens of other languages. In those countries these words refer to secundary education.
On the basis of a comparative study by the Flemish Engineering Association (VIK) on the education of engineers in the 15 EU member states, we can state that industrieel ingenieurs are educated at a "university of academic and professional education" or "technical universities".
The translated notions must not be interpreted in the Flemish context, but in the context of someone looking at the Belgian educational system from another language and culture.
2. The education of industrieel ingenieur 2.1. Structure of the studies
- The duration of studies is 4 years or 2 cycles (2 + 2 years).
- The first cycle is concluded with the degree and diploma of "kandidaat-industrieel ingenieur".
- The second cycle results in the degree and diploma of "industrieel ingenieur in... (followed by the specialisation)".
- Industrieel ingenieurs are educated in "Industrial Science and Technology". - In the international context we can compare a discipline with a faculty. - Faculties can be composed of several departments.
Example: the Faculty Industrial Science and Technology can consist of the departments civil engineering, chemistry, electricity, etc.
2.2. Possible educations
These are determined by the decree of 13 July 1994 on hogescholen in the Flemish Community. A similar decree determines the education for the French Community. The following educations are possible in Flanders:
- Civil engineering: option Civil engineering option Geodesy
- Chemistry: option Biochemistry
option Chemistry - Electricity: option Electricity option Electronics - Electromechanics - Industrial Design - Nuclear energy - Mechanics - Environment - Textile
- Packing and conditioning
- Nautical science (only "licentiaat" in the Nautical Science is possible). 2.3. Educational level
The basic studies have two cycles and the corresponding degrees are of adacemic level and therefore based on general scientific knowledge. In general, they contribute to general human development and are especially focused on the application of scien-ce, independent thinking and the development of creativity (Art. 11 § 2 of the decree of 13 July 1994 on hogescholen in the Flemish Community).
The studies of industrieel ingenieur therefore aim at a theoretical approach of the various aspects of technology on academic level.
The purpose of the studies is not the acquisition of a technical/practical skill. However, it does not exclude the fact that a large number of hours is spent on applications and laboratory work.
2.4. Study programme
A polyvalent basic education is given in the first cycle. Apart from the common subjects each hogeschool disposes of a number of hours to be filled in freely, so that the programmes of several institutions can differ slightly.
The common subjects are: biology, electricity, fluidomechanics, physics, informatics, materials science, mechanics, socio-economics, statistics, science of the strenght of materials, technical drawing, thermodynamics and mathematics.
The programme of the second cycle differs according to the specialisation. We can distinguish three kinds of subjects:
- common subjects for all options;
- common subjects, specific to each option;
- optional subjects, to be determined freely by the hogeschool.
The common subjects for all specialisations of the second cycle are: supplementary mathematics, business psychology, ecological aspects of production techniques, economic and financial business economics, informatics, social and industrial legislation as well as safety/environment/quality systems.
2.5. General profile
The notion of engineer refers first of all to a profile, which takes into account a certain basic knowledge and ability and a number of attitudes, independent of the specialisation. (cfr. Report "Beroepsprofiel van de industrieel ingenieur", June 1996 by order of the Flemish Minister of Education and Administrative Affairs Luc Van den Bossche).
There is a growing demand from industry for engineers with a polyvalent basic education and a rather limited specialisation. The industrieel ingenieur must be versatile in a whole range of sectors and fields (cfr. the employment service of the VIK and the hogescholen).
The education of industrieel ingenieur does not directly prepare students for a specific profession. Nor do engineers fulfill functions that can be described within a limited range of professional profiles. The employment of the industrieel ingenieur is spread over almost all sectors with industrial activities, including the service and non-profit sector. Industrieel ingenieurs hold the most diverse functions.
To name but a few: production engineers, project engineers, technical-commercial engineers (purchase and sales), engineers for research and development, logistic engineers, method engineers, counselling engineers, automation engineers, quality engineers, safety engineers, environment engineer, ergonomists, engineers in charge of education, engineers in government service, etc.
Industrieel ingenieurs receive a scientific basic knowledge and a broad technical knowledge. They can pinpoint problems and analyse them in a scientifically responsible way.
3. Educational institutions for industrieel ingenieurs 3.1. Flemish Community
The Flemish Community has 12 institutes (Faculties) at which one can study to be an industrieel ingenieur. The addresses are listed below. The number between brackets underneath the address indicates the total number of students (industrieel ingenieur) for the academic year 1997-1998(1).
- Karel de Grote-Hogeschool/Katholieke Hogeschool Antwerpen Departement Industriële Wetenschappen en Technologie (IW&T) Salesianenlaan 30, B-2660 Hoboken
(510)
- Hogeschool Antwerpen Departement IW&T
Paardenmarkt 94, 2000 Antwerpen en Hanswyckvaart 10, 2800 Mechelen (918)
- Katholieke Hogeschool Brugge-Oostende Departement IW&T
Zeedijk 101, 8400 Oostende (560)
- Hogeschool voor Wetenschap en Kunst Departement IW&T
De Nayerinstituut
Jan De Nayerlaan 5, 2860 Sint-Katelijne-Waver (898)
- Erasmushogeschool Brussel Departement IW&T
Nijverheidskaai 4, 170, 1070 Brussel (184)
- Katholieke Hogeschool Kempen Departement IW&T
Kleinhoefstraat 4, 2440 Geel (661)
- Katholieke Hogeschool Sint-Lieven Departement IW&T
Gebroeders Desmetstraat 1, 9000 Gent (1,690)
- Hogeschool Gent
Departement IW&T en Departement Biotechniek Schoonmeerstraat 52, 9000 Gent Voskenslaan 270, 9000 Gent
(949) (260)
- Katholieke Hogeschool Limburg Departement IW&T
Universitaire Campus - Gebouw B, 3590 Diepenbeek (418) - Hogeschool Limburg Departement IW&T Maastrichterstraat 100, 3500 Hasselt (317) - Hogeschool West-Vlaanderen Departement IW&T
Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, 8500 Kortrijk (430)
- Groep T Technologische Hogeschool Leuven Departement IW&T
Vesaliusstraat 13, 3000 Leuven (1,116)
3.2. Total number of students for industrieel ingenieur in the Flemish Community for the academic year 1997-1998: 8,911(1).
3.3. French Community
The French Community has 16 institutes (Faculties) offering the studies of industrieel ingenieur. The addresses are listed below. The number between brackets underneath the address indicates the total number of students (industrieel ingenieur) for the academic year 1997-1998(2). The asterisk means that no figures were available at the time of going to print.
1 Institut supérieur de la Communauté Française (*) Rue Royale 150 1000 Bruxelles 2 Institut supérieur industriel - Insitut Meurice - Institut des
indus-tries de fermentation (125)
Avenue Emile Gryson 1 1070 Bruxelles
3 Institut supérieur industriel ECAM (700)
Rue du Tir 14 1060 Bruxelles 4 Institut supérieur de la Communauté Française (ISIMs)
(280)
Avenue Maistriau 8A 7000 Mons
5 Institut supérieur industriel de la province du Hainaut (ISIPH) (*)
Boulevard Solvay 31 6000 Charleroi 6 Institut supérieur industriel de la province du Hainaut (ISIPH)
(*)
Rue Paul Pastur 2 7500 Tournai 7 Institut supérieur industriel de la province du Hainaut (ISIPH)
(*)
Rue de l'Académie 1 7810 Maffle (Ath) 8 Institut supérieur industriel catholique du Hainaut (ISICH)
(700)
Avenue de l'Hôpital 22 7000 Mons
9 Institut supérieur industriel catholique du Hainaut (ISICH) (*)
Grand Rue 185 6000 Charleroi 10 Institut supérieur de la Communauté Française de
Huy-Gembloux-Verviers (10 + 11 = 650)
Rue Saint-Victor 3 4500 Huy
11 Institut supérieur de la Communauté Française de Huy-Gembloux-Verviers
(10 + 11 = 650)
Rue de Séroule 8 4800 Verviers 12 Institut supérieur industriel Liégeois (ISIL)
(489)
Quai Gloeserer 6 4030 Liège 13 Institut supérieur industriel - Institut Gramme Liège (Haute
Ecole Mosane d'Enseignement Supérieur) (500)
Quai du Condroz 28 4031 Angleur 14 Institut supérieur de la Communauté Française
(210)
Chemin de Weyler 2 6700 Arlon
15 Institut supérieur industriel catholique du Luxembourg (203)
Arts et Métiers - Pierrard 6760 Virton
16 Institut supérieur industriel de la Communauté Française de Huy-Gembloux-Verviers
(*)
Rue Verlaine 9 5031 Gembloux
3.4. Total number of students (industrieel ingenieur) for the academic year 1997-1998 in the French Community: 3,860(3).
4. Education of burgerlijk ingenieurs
Burgerlijk ingenieurs are educated at a university. The duration of studies is 5 years. There are 9 institutes for burgerlijk ingenieurs in Belgium. The education can be organised by:
4.1. a Faculty for Applied Science of a university.
- 3 faculties belong to the Flemish Community. The universities are: * Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KUL)
* Universiteit Gent (UG)
* Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB)
- 3 faculties belong to the French Community. The universities are: * Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL)
* Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) * Université de Liège (ULg)
4.2. In the French Community burgerlijk ingenieurs can also be educated at: - the "Faculté Polytechnique de Mons" (FPM)
- the "Faculté Universitaire de Sciences Agronomique de Gembloux" (FAG) 4.3. The degree of burgerlijk ingenieur can also be awarded by:
- The Koninklijke Militaire School (KMS) / Ecole Royale Militaire (ERM) This is a bilingual national institute which resorts under the competence of the Federal Ministry of Defense.
5. Universities (education of burgerlijk ingenieurs)
The addresses of the Belgian institutes for burgerlijk ingenieur are listed below. The number between brackets underneath the address indicates the total number of students (in-dustrieel ingenieur) for the academic year 1997-1998(2&3).
The total number of students (burgerlijk ingenieur) for the academic year 1997-1998 in Belgium amounted to 8,783.
1 Katholieke Universiteit Leuvel (KUL) (1,838)
Faculteit Toegepaste Wetenschappen Arenbergkasteel
Kardinaal Mercierlaan 94 3001 Heverlee
Faculteit Landbouwkundige en Toegepaste Biologische Wetenschappen
Kardinaal Mercierlaan 94 3001 Heverlee
2 Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL)
(1,300)
Faculté des Sciences Appliquées Rue Archimède 1
1348 Louvain La Neuve
Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques Place Croix du Sud 2, boite 1 1348 Louvain La Neuve 3 Universiteit Gent (UG)
(1,300)
Faculteit Toegepaste Wetenschappen Jozef Plateaustraat 22
9000 Gent
Faculteit Landbouwkundige en Toegepaste Biologische Wetenschappen
Coupure Links 653 9000 Gent
4 Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) (395)
Faculteit Toegepaste Wetenschappen Pleinlaan 2 (Gebouw K, niveau 2) 1050 Brussel
Faculteit Landbouwkundige en Toegepaste Biologische Wetenschappen
Pleinlaan 2 1050 Brussel 5 Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB)
(1,000)
Faculté des Sciences Appliquées Avenue F. Roosevelt 50
1050 Bruxelles
Faculté de la Section Interfacultaire d'Agronomie Avenue F. Roosevelt 50
1050 Bruxelles 6 Université de Liège (ULg)
(1,000)
Faculté des Sciences Appliquées Avenue de Tilleuls 15 - D1 4000 Liège
7 Faculté Polytechnique de Mons (FPM)
(900)
Faculté des Sciences Appliquées Rue de Houdain 9
7000 Mons 8 Faculté Universitaire des Sciences
Agronomiques de Gembloux (FAG) (500)
Passage des Déportés 2 5030 Gembloux
9 Koninklijke Militaire School (KMS) Ecole Royale Militaire (ERM) (150)
Renaissancelaan 30 1040 Brussel
6. Survey of the number of engineering students in Belgium Academic year 1997-1998
Industrieel ingenieur Burgerlijk ingenieur
Duration 4 years 5 years
Flemish Community 8,911 3,608 French Community 5,300 5,175
Total for Belgium 14,211 8,783
7. Titel, abbreviation, international equivalent
Title Abbreviation Number of study years International
equivalent(4) industrieel ingenieur Ing. 4 MEng. burgerlijk ingenieur ir 5 MSc.
8. Mission and goal of higher education for both industrieel and burgerlijk ingenieur At the beginning of the nineties the legislation on Higher Education in Flanders underwent a facelift. In 1991 the Flemish Parliament approved a decree on the Flemish Universities (decree of 12 June 1991).
In 1994 the Flemish Parliament approved a corresponding decree on the hogescholen (decree of 13 July 1994).
9. Mission of the universities
The decree of 12 June 1991 describes the mission of the universities as follows:
"Universities are, in the interest of society, simultaneously active in the field of academic education, scientific research and scientific services".
The decree describes the finality of academic education as follows:
"Academic education is the education based on scientific research, carried out by universities, which contributes entirely to general human development and prepares for the autonomous practice of science or the application of scientific knowledge."
10. Mission of hogescholen in general
The decree of 13 July 1994 describes the mission of the hogescholen as follows:
"Hogescholen are, in the interest of society, simultaneously active in the field of hogeschool education, social services and, possibly, thematic scientific research as part of a collaboration with a domestic or foreign university or with a third party."
...
"Providing hogeschool education is the basic role of the hogeschool."
The finality of hogeschool education is formulated as follows:
"the one-cycle basic educations and the corresponding degrees are aimed at acquiring professional skills, based on thorough scientific knowledge. In general they contribute to general human development and are specifically aimed at the practical application of science, autonomous thinking and the development of creativity and professional skills."
11. Description of two-cycle hogeschool education
The education of industrieel ingenieur consists of two cycles (2 x 2 years). The decree describes the education of industrieel ingenieur as follows:
"The two-cycle basic educations and the corresponding degrees are of academic level and therefore based on scientific knowledge. In general they contribute to the general human development and are specifically aimed at the practical application of science,
12. Definition higher education - university
The distinction is not always evident in concrete cases. The legislators ackowledge this in the "Memorie van Toelichting" (explanatory memorandum) to the hogeschool decree. We quote:
"A precise distinction between higher education at universities and hogescholen will never be fully feasible. Roughly speaking one can state that the forms of education do not differ as to the volume of the subject matter, but to the level of abstraction and the approach of the subject contents.
Higher education at universities is thus characterised by the internal exchange between education and research. The students must learn to practice science independently and to apply it in a critical manner. At the hogescholen the exchange between education and labour market is the focus point with special attention to vocational training, personality development and social integration."
13. Interaction education - research - labour market
We refer to an academic speech by Prof. ir. Jacques Willems, rector of the University of Ghent(2). We quote:
"It is certain that it is difficult to draw a dividing line between studies belonging to a university and those that are part of the mission of a hogeschool .
- because not everybody interprets the formulation of the above-mentioned
distinction in the same way,
- because the desired contents and the most efficient organisation of education
for society is subject to discussions,
- and also because the present division of tasks partly depends on historic data.
As for the latter I refer to examples such as the studies of translater-interpreter, architecture, to name a few for which the present situation is largely a consequence of the past.
I especially want to draw your attention to the fact that whether studies are a direct or indirect preparation for a profession, it should be a determining criterion for the distinc-tion between academic educadistinc-tion on the one hand and hogeschool educadistinc-tion on the other hand. It is obvious that hogeschool education in general is and should be more directly aimed at the labour market, and this the more so for hogeschool studies of one cycle. However, it is certainly not the case that academic or university education should or could not result directly in a specific profession. On the contrary, a number of university educations are justly conceived in such a way that they for a more or less large part -sometimes even all - of the graduates prepare to a specific profession. We point in the first place to the studies of medecine and dentistry, and also to pharmacology (pharmacist), notary public. Those studies are very much academic. The distinctive criterion is the link with scientific research and the necessity to give a training that is closely related to and reflects the spirit of scientific research..."
"As to service as well, the legislator has highlighted only very subtly a distinction between the notions "scientific service" for the university and "social service" for the hogeschool. Yet he clearly wanted to indicate that both forms of higher education have a different finality, each with its own value, in that field as well. In a society where small and medium-sized enterprises, which find it difficult to address themselves to a university, constitute the backbone of the economy, there is room for an important bridging function for hogescholen...."
14. Continuing education and post-hogeschool education
In Belgium industrieel and burgerlijk ingenieurs can take continuing education(6).
Certain hogescholen also provide courses which, in collaboration with an English university, lead to the degree of Master (MSc.). The Continuing Education at a hogeschool leads to the degree of "Gediplomeerde in de Voortgezette Studie in...". The foreign university confers the Master's degree to industrieel ingenieurs. This way, after a supplementary education of 1 year (full-time) or 2 years (part-time) at the department of Industrial Science and Technology at the Katholieke Hogeschool Brugge-Oostende, an in-dustrieel ingenieur can proceed to the degree of "Graduate in the continuing education of Electronic Systems Design" or "Graduate in the continuing educatiuon of EMC". The de-gree of MSc in Electronic System Design is conferred by the Leeds Metropolitan Universi-ty. The degree of MSc. in EMC is issued by the University of York. Both degrees are accredited.
At the Belgian universities both industrieel and burgerlijk ingenieurs can proceed to a master's degree.
Furthermore, hogescholen and universities organise numerous post-hogeschool courses. These, and courses leading to non-accredited master's degrees, are also provided by the trade union of engineers(7).
15. Doctor's degree
Proceeding to one's doctor's degree in Belgium is only possible at a university (minimum duration of 3 years) and leads for engineers to the degree of Doctor in the Applied Sciences (Dr.ir.).
Universities have is a specific arrangement for industrieel ingenieurs. A growing number of industrieel ingenieurs take their doctor's degree at foreign universities (England, the Netherlands, the United States and France).
16. Evolution of the number of students
In almost all EU countries the number of registrations for engineering studies is dropping. This is also the case for Belgium. For the academic year 1985-1986 there were 865 sub-scriptions for the first year of all faculties of applied sciences (burgerlijk ingenieur) in the Flemish Community. There were 4,424 first year students (industrieel ingenieur) for the same period.
A decade later there were 640 first year students (burgerlijk ingenieur) and 2,603 for industrieel ingenieur.
For the academic year 1997-1998 there was a slight increase compared to the previous years (12% more for burgerlijk ingenieur and 4.5% more for industrieel ingenieur).
A similar trend was found in the French Community.
A summary of the number of first year students in the Flemish Community for the period 1985-1996(1) is given below. The numbers in the column "burgerlijk ingenieur" exclude
repeaters but include architect-engineers.
Evolution of the number of first year students
Academic year Burgerlijk ingenieur Industrieel ingenieur 1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996 1996-1997 865 813 805 910 859 872 880 748 772 672 640 695 4,424 4,631 5,004 4,776 4,940 4,853 4,113 3,723 3,089 2,811 2,603 2,941
17. Evolution of employment of the Flemish industrieel ingenieur
17.1 At the end of April 1997 there were 2.13% (1,089 persons) unemployed industrieel ingenieurs looking for a job. This is the lowest percentage since 1989.
17.2 Turning point
The analysis of vacancies for industrieel ingenieurs is carried out with statistical material from the VIK. The last analysis covered the period of 15 September 1995 to 15 September 1996. In that period industrieel ingenieurs were worth 1,768 jobs or 16.83% of 10,500 vacancies analysed for graduates of higher education. As a comparison, in the period of September 1994 to September 1995 we noted a 1.4 % increase in vacancies for industrieel ingenieur. At the end of April 1994 we noted the highest level of unemployment among industrieel ingenieurs since our observations in 1975. There were 2,431 unemployed industrieel ingenieurs looking for a job. That represents 5% of the total number of available industrieel ingenieurs in Flanders. A slight decrease could already be noticed in April 1995. Two years later unemployment had dropped by a further 2%. The demand for industrieel ingenieurs will be difficult to meet in the next years because of a sharp decrease in the number of graduates. In 1990 there were 2,209 graduates, in 1996 this had dropped to 1,950 and in 1997 only 1,755 industrieel ingenieurs had graduated.
Evolution in percentage of the number of
unemployed industrieel ingenieurs looking for a job in Flanders (month of reference: April)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97
%
17.3 Shift in function barometer
A comparison with the previous analysis for the period September 1995-September 1996 reveals an increased demand for technical-commercial functions (27% in 1997 to 25% in 1996). There is also a significant increase in vacancies for development engineers (21% in 1996 to 25% in 1997). The demand for production engineers keeps falling back. In 1994 they represented 22.5% of the vacancies, 15% in 1996 and in 1997 only 11%. A similar trend can be noted for the demand for industrieel ingenieurs in maintenance (6% in 1994, 4.5% in 1996 and 3% in 1997).
17.4 Top ten according to specialisation
The vacancies show a growing trend to indicate the specialisation. In 1996 2.5% of the vacancies did not indicate the specialisation, in 1997 this was only 1%. The demand for industrieel ingenieurs in electromechanics is on the decrease, percentage-wise: 39% in 1994, 37% in 1996 and 33% in 1997. Electromechanics remains in the upper part of the top ten most demanded specialisations.
The demand for industrieel ingenieurs in electronics (informatics) has grown dramatically in the period September 1996-September 1997. In 1994 they filled 22% of the vacancies, in 1996 26% and in 1997 the demand had risen to 32.5%. The declining trend for civil engineering started in 1996, continued in 1997 and dropped from 18.5% to 17%.
The number of vacancies for industrieel ingenieurs in electricity (power current) is more or less the same (5% in 1994, 4% in 1995 and 5% in 1997).
Requested specialisation: top ten period 1996-1997
Function barometer: top ten period 1996-1997 1. Electromechanics 2. Electronics/Informatics 3. Civil engineering 4. Chemistry 5. Electricity 6. Agriculture 7. Textile 8. Biochemistry 9. Mechanics 10. No mention 33% 32.5% 17% 6% 5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1% 1% 100% 1. Technical-commercial 2. Development 3. Sales 4. Production 5. Wharf (construction) 6. Planning office 7. Maintenance 8. Safety 9. Training 10. No mention 27% 25% 17.5% 11% 6% 6% 3% 3% 1% 0.5% 100%
Sources
(1)Ministry of the Flemish Community, Department of Education, "Statistische telling van de studenten in het hoger onderwijs op 31 oktober 1997".
(2)Figures communicated by the institutes. (3)Ministry of the French Community.
(4)Vergelijkende studie Opleiding van Ingenieurs in Europa, VIK, N. Lagast, ed. January 1998.
(5)"Universiteit en Hogeschool: concurrentieel of complementair ?" - academic speech held at the occasion of the opening of the academic year 1997-1998 at the University of Ghent on 1 October 1997.
(6)Brochure: "Hogescholen in FlandersBelgium", Ministry of the Flemish Community -Department of Education and Scientific Reasearch - Brussels (June 1997).
(7)Trade union of Flemish Industrieel Ingenieurs: Vlaamse Ingenieurskamer (VIK), Kunstlaan 16, B-3500 Hasselt, tel.: +32-(0)11-24.94.50 - fax: +32-(0)11/24.21.05 - e-mail: [email protected]
Trade union of Burgerlijk Ingenieurs: Koninklijke Vlaamse Ingenieursvereniging (K VIV), Desguinlei 214, B-2018 Antwerp, tel.: 216.09.96 - fax: +32-(0)3-216.06.89 - e-mail: [email protected]
