The effects of experimentally induced expectancy of specific aspects of teachers' verbal behavior

The effects of experimentally induced expectancy

of specific aspects of teachers' verbal behavior

Authors Leslie, Mary Agnes,

1945-Publisher The University of Arizona.

Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author.

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THE EFFECTS OF EXPERIMENTALLY INDUCED EXPECTANCY

ON SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF TEACHERS' VERBAL BEHAVIOR

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M a ry A gnes L e s lie

A T h e s is S u b m itted to th e F a c u lty of th e

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

In P a rtia l F u lfillm e n t of th e R eq u irem en ts For th e D e g re e of

MASTER OF ARTS

In th e G ra d u a te C o lle g e

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

STA TEM EN T BY A U T H O R

T his t h e s i s h a s b e e n su b m itte d in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of r e ­ q u ire m e n ts for an a d v a n c e d d e g re e a t The U n iv e r s ity of A rizona and is d e p o s ite d in th e U n iv e rs ity L ib rary to be m ade a v a ila b le to b o rro w ers u n d er r u le s of th e L ib rary .

Brief q u o ta tio n s from th is t h e s i s a re a llo w a b le w ith o u t s p e c ia l p e rm is s io n , p ro v id ed th a t a c c u r a te a c k n o w le d g m e n t of s o u rc e i s m a d e . R e q u e sts for p e rm is sio n for e x te n d e d q u o ta tio n from or re p ro d u c tio n of th is m a n u sc rip t in w hole or in p a rt m ay be g ra n te d by th e h e a d of th e m ajo r d e p a rtm e n t or th e D ean of th e G r a d u a te C o lle g e w hen in h is ju d g ­ m ent th e p ro p o se d u s e of th e m a te ria l is in th e i n t e r e s t s of s c h o la r ­

s h ip . In a ll o th e r i n s t a n c e s , h o w e v e r, p e rm is sio n m u st be o b ta in e d from the a u th o r.

SIGNED:

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

T h is t h e s i s h a s b e e n a p p ro v e d on th e d a te show n below :

C E C ItfA . ROGERS

J E H H O W I Z D G M E N T S

The a u th o r i s in d e b te d to a n u m b er of in d iv id u a ls w h o , a t

v a r i o u s tim e s d u rin g th e c o u r s e of th is s tu d y , p ro v id e d in v a lu a b le

^ a s s i s t a n c e , a d v ic e , a n d s u p p o rt. -S p e c ia l a c k n o w le d g m e n ts a re d u e to

cthe m em b ers of th e t h e s i s ' c o m m ittee . A d e b t of g ra titu d e i s a c k n o w ­

l e d g e d to D r. C e c il A. R o g e rs , J r . , w ho s e rv e d a s t h e s i s ' d ir e c to r ,

. ■ ,

-f o r h is e n c o u ra g e m e n t an d u s e -f u l a d v ic e w ith r e s p e c t to th e t h e s i s an d

o th e r a s p e c t s of th e g ra d u a te program d u rin g th e p a s t tw o y e a r s . S p e c ia l

.th a n k s a re d ue a l s o to D r. Rene A. R uiz for h is c a re fu l and c r i ti c a l

r e a d in g of th e m a n u s c rip t, an d to D r. John D e lk for s e rv in g a s th e th ird

m em ber of th e t h e s i s ' c o m m itte e . ■ .

A s p e c ia l w ord of g ra titu d e i s ow ed to D r. Ted L. R o s e n th a l

w h o p ro v id e d in v a lu a b le g u id a n c e d u rin g th e p la n n in g s ta g e s of th e s tu d y .

G ra titu d e i s e x te n d e d a l s o to M r. Ben J a c o b , M is s P au la S to n e ,

a n d D r. B arry J. Zim m erm an w ho a s s i s t e d in th e film in g o f th e v id e o - ta p e

u s e d in th is e x p e rim e n t. The a u th o r i s lik e w is e in d e b te d to a num ber of

. c o -w o rk e rs a t th e R e s e a rc h a n d D e v e lo p m e n t C e n t e r , E a rly C h ild h o o d

. E d u c a tio n L a b o ra to ry for th e ir a s s i s t a n c e s o w illin g ly o ffe re d a t v a rio u s

-• TABLE OF CONTENTS • r ' " V ■ • " : \ ' / r ' " ' j ' V ■ ■ . . P a 9 e LIST OF TABLES * » *. « « « • « *. ® ■» * * @ .. « « « « • », e v ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . ‘ . . . . . . v i INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . 1 METHOD . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 7 S u b j e c t s ... “ 7 M a te r ia ls an d A p p a ratu s . . . . . . . . 7 P ro ced u re. ... . . ., . . .. . . . . ., . ., 9

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . 12

APPENDIX A: INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

APPENDIX B: FINAL INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 29

i2 S T OF TABLES

T a b le ' . P age

1 ^ M e a n s o f H ig h , A v e ra g e , and Low E x p e c ta n c y G ro u p s

<on F iv e R e s p o n s e M e a s u r e s . . . 16

2 . Summary of A n a ly s e s of V a rian ce for F iv e R e sp o n se

M e a s u r e s . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . 17

B ., C on tin u u m of M e a n s 'a n d In te rv e n in g D is ta n c e s for

ABSTRACT

T h is s tu d y w a s d e s ig n e d to i n v e s tig a te th e e f f e c ts of e x p e r

i-1

jn e n ta lly ; in d u c e d e x p e c ta n c y upon s p e c if ic a s p e c t s of t e a c h e r s ' v e rb a l '

b e h a v io r. Three c o n d itio n s of e x p e c ta n c y w ere e m p lo y e d : h ig h , a v e r a g e ,

_ a n d lo w , w ith IQ s c o r e s p ro v id in g th e s e t fo r e a c h c o n d itio n . A ttem pt

w a s m ade to t e s t s e v e r a l r e la te d h y p o t h e s e s . It w a s p re d ic te d th a t Ss

in th e "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n w ould b e m ore re in fo rc in g in th e ir

v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s th a n w ould Ss in th e .o th er tw o c o n d itio n s . On th e o th e r

h a n d , i t w a s p re d ic te d t h a t S_s in th e " lo w e x p e c ta n c y " g ro u p w ould be

s ig n if ic a n tly m ore n e g a tiv e in th e ir r e s p o n s e s . In a d d itio n , Ss in th e .

"h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n w ere e x p e c te d t o a s k a la r g e r num ber of

q u e s tio n s and to m ake a g r e a te r num ber of in s tr u c tio n a l s ta te m e n ts . It

w a s fu rth e r h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t Ss in th e h ig h g roup w ould u s e a s ig n if i­

c a n tly la rg e r to ta l num ber of w o rd s in th e ir v e r b a liz a tio n s th a n w ould f3s

in th e a v e ra g e and lo w g ro u p s . S ix ty - s ix fe m a le s tu d e n t - t e a c h e r s s e rv e d

a s S s . A fter random a s s ig n m e n t to th e th re e c o n d itio n s , a l l Ss w ere e x ­

p o s e d to th e sam e v i d e o - ta p e of a c h ild e n g a g in g in c o n c e p t-fo rm a tio n

t a s k s . Ss ta p e - r e c o r d e d th e ir r e s p o n s e s to th e 10 m in u te t a p e , in d ir e c t

a d d r e s s form , d u rin g in d iv id u a l te s t i n g s e s s i o n s of a p p ro x im a te ly 30

m in u te s d u ra tio n e a c h . The v e rb a l r e s p o n s e s w ere c l a s s i f i e d in to fiv e

A n a ly s e s o f v a r ia n c e of th e fiv e r e s p o n s e m e a su re s, fo r th e th re e c o n d itio n s

f a ile d to sh o w a n y s ig n if ic a n t d if f e r e n c e s am ong th e e x p e c ta n c y g r o u p s .

T h u s , th e e x p e rim e n ta l h y p o th e s e s w ere n o t c o n firm e d . I m p lic a tio n s of

. INTRODUCTION

: ■ '

'The id e a of e x p e c ta n c y h a s b e e n e m p lo y e d b y s e v e r a l p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l th e o r is t s in th e ir d i s c u s s io n s of a w id e ra n g e of hum an b e h a v io rs

v,(Allport, 1.950; C row ne and M a rlo w e , 1964; G u th r ie , 1938; O rn e , 1959).

iR o b ert M e rto n (1948) c o n trib u te d g r e a tly to th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e c o n c e p t

o f " s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c y /" th e e s s e n c e of w h ich i s th a t one p e r s o n 's

p re d ic tio n of a n o th e r 's b e h a v io r so m eh o w co m es to be r e a l i z e d . The

.e x p e c ta tio n i s c o m m u n ic a te d , so m e tim e s u n in te n tio n a lly , th u s in flu e n c in g

a c t u a l b e h a v io r. Such e f f e c ts m ay be d e m o n s tra te d in tr a p e r s o n a lly , b u t

m o st e s p e c i a l l y , i t i s in in te r p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s th a t e x p e c ta n c ie s p la y

th e ir m o st o b v io u s an d m e a s u ra b le r o l e s . E x a m p les m ay b e draw n from

m e m o rie s of e v e n ts in e v e ry d a y life w h ic h in v a rio u s w a y s sh o w th e

v ita l ro le th a t e x p e c ta tio n s p la y in in flu e n c in g th in k in g an d b e h a v in g .

:■ Such e x p e c ta n c ie s m ay h a v e b o th p o s itiv e a n d n e g a tiv e e f f e c ts on th e

b e h a v io r of o n e s e lf an d o th e r s .

R e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e , b o th p o p u la r and s c ie n ti f i c , i s r e p le te w ith

e x a m p le s of th e p o te n c y o f e x p e c ta tio n s in in flu e n c in g th e b e h a v io r of

b o th hum an an d in frah u m an S s . The c o n c e p t of e x p e c ta n c y h a s b e e n

show n to h a v e a g r e a t d e a l of r e le v a n c e in th e la b o ra to ry , in th e c l a s s ­

ro o m , and in s itu a tio n s e n c o u n te re d in e v e ry d a y life (L agem ann, 1969; •

• O ne im p o rta n t a re a of e x p e c ta n c y r e s e a r c h h a s fo c u s e d on th e

f ie ld of e d u c a tio n . I t h a s b e e n found t h a t th e c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r 's e x ­

p e c ta tio n s in flu e n c e th e a c tu a l p e rfo rm an ce of s tu d e n t s . R o s e n th a l an d

J a c o b so n (1968) r e p o rte d d e ta ile d fin d in g s of a n e x p e rim e n t w h ich sh o w

t h a t , in m o st c a s e s , if a te a c h e r e x p e c ts a c h ild to b e i n t e l l i g e n t , h e

w ill a c tu a lly d e m o n s tra te g r e a te r i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c ity . At th e b e g in n in g

o f a s c h o o l y e a r , 18 t e a c h e r s w ere g iv e n th e n a m e s o f th o s e c h ild re n in

. th e ir c l a s s e s w ho c o u ld b e e x p e c te d , on th e b a s i s of i n te llig e n c e t e s t s

a d m in is te re d th e p re v io u s s p rin g , to sh o w s ig n if ic a n t i n c r e a s e s in i n t e l ­

l e c t u a l a b i l i t y d u rin g th e y e a r . S in ce th e n a m e s o f th e " s p u rte r s " h ad

b e e n c h o s e n a t ra n d o m , d iff e r e n c e s b e tw e e n them and th e o th e r c h ild re n

e x is te d o n ly in th e m in d s of th e t e a c h e r s .

A ll s tu d e n ts w ere t e s t e d on th e sam e in te llig e n c e t e s t a f te r one

s e m e s te r , a f te r one a c a d e m ic y e a r , an d a g a in a f te r tw o a c a d e m ic y e a r s .

G a in s in IQ s c o re s from t e s t to r e t e s t w ere d e te rm in e d fo r b o th g ro u p s of

s t u d e n t s . At th e e n d o f th e f ir s t y e a r of th e e x p e rim e n t a s ig n if ic a n t e x ­

p e c ta n c y e f f e c t w a s e v id e n t. The e f f e c t w a s g r e a te s t fo r c h ild re n in th e

f i r s t a n d s e c o n d g r a d e s . D u rin g th e s u b s e q u e n t fo llo w -u p y e a r th e

y o u n g e r c h ild re n l o s t th e ir e x p e c ta n c y a d v a n ta g e , w h ile c h ild re n in th e

u p p e r g ra d e s sh o w ed a n in c r e a s in g e x p e c ta n c y a d v a n ta g e .

In a r e la te d s tu d y , R o s e n th a l a n d Ja c o b so n (1966) ran d o m ly

s e le c te d 286 p u p ils from 18 c l a s s e s . The te a c h e r s w ere to ld t h a t th o s e

o b ta in e d fo r a ll c h ild re n in th e c l a s s e s a t th e b e g in n in g of th e s c h o o l

■syear. E ig h t m o n th s l a t e r th e sam e t e s t w a s g iv e n to e a c h c h ild a n d

ch an g e, s c o r e s w ere c o m p u te d . I t w a s fo u n d th a t s tu d e n ts w h o se t e a c h e r s

b a d b e e n le d to e x p e c t g r e a te r i n t e l l e c t u a l g a in sh o w e d a s ig n if ic a n tly

g r e a te r i n c r e a s e in IQ s c o r e s th a n d id th e c o n tro l c h ild r e n .• I t th u s s e e m s

:'e v id e n t from s u c h e x p e rim e n ts t h a t te a c h e r s '- e x p e c t a t io n s c a n an d do

-in flu e n c e s t u d e n t s ' i n t e l l e c t u a l p e rfo rm an ce a n d /o r th e a s s e s s m e n t t h e r e ­

o f. . ' ■■■; ' ■

-A k e y i s s u e in e x p e c ta n c y r e s e a r c h an d e x p e rim e n te r b ia s

" re se a rc h i s t h a t of m ode of m e d ia tio n o f th e e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t . M ore

p r e c i s e l y , i t c o n c e rn s th e m a n n e r in w h ic h e x p e c ta n c ie s a re com m uni­

c a t e d , th u s c a u s in g th e ir fu lf illm e n t. R o s e n th a l a n d F ode (1963) p ro v id e

e v id e n c e th a t e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c ts c a n b e m e d ia te d b y in te n tio n a l or u n in ­

te n tio n a l v e rb a l an d v i s u a l c u e s . M a s lin g (1965) s u g g e s te d th a t . ’

a d d itio n a l m o d es of m e d ia tio n c o u ld be p o s tu r e , g e s t u r e , an d f a c ia l e x ­

p r e s s io n . A dair and E p s te in (1967) o ffe r e v id e n c e to s u p p o rt th e h y p o th e ­

s i s t h a t v o c a l c u e s , ( e .g . , v a r ia tio n s in to n e of v o ic e ) , a re s u ff ic ie n t to

tra n s m it an e x p e c ta n c y . M a rw it an d M a rc ia (1967) sum u p th e ir d i s c u s s io n

o f e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y b y a ttrib u tin g th e e f f e c t to som e form of v e r ­

b a l c o n d itio n in g d u rin g th e c o u rs e of th e .e x p e r im e n te r 's in te r a c tio n w ith

s s . , . .

V

On th e b a s i s of th e a b o v e e v id e n c e i t m ay b e p re su m e d th a t

t e a c h e r s m ig h t b e m e d ia te d s im ila r ly . A lo g ic a l a s s u m p tio n in v o lv e s th e

a ttrib u tio n of d if f e r e n tia l b e h a v io rs to te a c h e r s on th e b a s i s of th e ir e x p e c ­

t a t i o n s . H o w e v e r, th e e x a c t n a tu re of s u c h b e h a v io rs h a s n o t b e e n i n v e s ­

tig a te d in s c h o o l s e tt i n g s .

Two r e le v a n t s tu d ie s h a v e fo c u s e d upon s e le c te d a s p e c t s of

te a c h e r b e h a v io r a s r e la te d to e x p e c ta n c y . C a h e n (1966) s o u g h t to i n ­

v e s ti g a t e w h e th e r f a l s e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t p u p ils ' a p titu d e s w ould in f lu ­

e n c e t e a c h e r s ' t e s t - s c o r i n g b e h a v io r . H is sa m p le c o n s is te d of 256

s tu d e n t t e a c h e r s w ho w ere g iv e n n ew t e s t s of re a d in g r e a d in e s s to s c o r e .

T hey w ere to ld t h a t c h ild re n s c o rin g h ig h e r on IQ t e s t s a n d on o th e r t e s t s

of re a d in g a b ility te n d e d to s c o re h ig h e r on th a t p a r tic u la r re a d in g t e s t

a l s o . The p u p ils ' IQ s an d r e a d in g l e v e ls w ere in d ic a te d on th e fro n t of

th e t e s t b o o k l e t s . R e s u lts o f th e s tu d y sh o w ed t h a t , in th e ir s c o rin g ,

» • •

te a c h e r s g a v e m uch g r e a te r b e n e f it of th e d o u b t to th e " b rig h te r" c h ild re n

th a n to th e " d u lle r" c h ild re n . The c o n c lu s io n w a s draw n th a t w ork d o n e

by s tu d e n ts c o n s id e re d b rig h t te n d s to b e e v a lu a te d a s of a h ig h e r i n t e l ­

le c tu a l q u a lity th a n w ork d o n e b y l e s s g ifte d c h ild re n .

. A s tu d y b y B eez (1967) s h e d s a d d itio n a l lig h t on th e phenom enon

o f te a c h e r e x p e c ta n c y an d o ffe rs a c lu e a s to th e n a tu re o f th e e f fe c t of

e x p e c ta tio n s on th e a c tu a l b e h a v io rs of t e a c h e r s . S ix ty H e a d s ta r t p re ­

s c h o o le rs w ere in s tr u c te d by 60 te a c h e r s in th e m ea n in g of a s e r i e s of

s y m b o ls . H a lf of th e t e a c h e r s w ere le d to b e lie v e t h a t th e c h ild re n th e y

t o e x p e c t p o o r le a rn in g from th e ir p u p i l s , An in d e p e n d e n t r a t e r a s s e s s e d

th e a c tu a l p erfo rm an ce o f th e s tu d e n t s . S e v e n ty - s e v e n p e r c e n t of th e

• c h ild re n d e s ig n a te d a s i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s u p e rio r le a rn e d fiv e or m ore sym ­

b o ls . O n ly 13% o f th e c h ild re n la b e l l e d a s p o o r l e a r n e r s m a s te r e d an

e q u iv a le n t n um ber o f sy m b o ls.. I t w a s fo u n d t h a t th e te a c h e r s w ith g r e a te r

e x p e c ta tio n s fo r p u p il p e rfo rm an ce trie d to t e a c h m ore sy m b o ls t o th e

^ c h ild re n th a n d id th e te a c h e r s w ith lo w e r e x p e c ta tio n s re g a rd in g th e

c h ild r e n ' s a b i l i t i e s . T hus t e a c h e r s ' e x p e c ta n c ie s m ay a l s o c a u s e d r a ­

m a tic a lte r a tio n s in te a c h in g s ty le a n d in th e q u a n tity of in fo rm a tio n

I m p a r te d to th e ir s t u d e n t s . _

A lth o u g h i t h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d th a t u s e f u l in fo rm a tio n co u ld b e

g a in e d th ro u g h th e o b s e rv a tio n an d re c o rd in g of s p e c if ic a lly d e fin e d a s ­

p e c t s of t e a c h e r s ' i n te r a c tio n s w ith " b rig h t" an d w ith " d u ll" p u p ils

(R o se n th a l an d J a c o b s o n , 1 9 6 8 ), no s u c h s tu d ie s h a v e b e e n re p o rte d in

th e l i t e r a t u r e . T h e re fo re , in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y an a tte m p t w a s m ade to

d e lim it c e r ta in r e le v a n t a s p e c t s of t e a c h e r s ' v e r b a l b e h a v io r . Such r e s ­

p o n s e s w ere th e n m e a s u re d a s f u n c tio n s of e x p e c ta n c ie s in d u c e d a b o u t

th e i n t e l l e c t u a l le v e l of a c h ild o b s e rv e d on v i d e o - t a p e . An a n a lo g s i t u ­

a tio n of t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t in te r a c tio n w a s c r e a te d . T hree ty p e s of e x p e c -

'ta n c ie s w ere in d u c e d : h ig h , a v e r a g e , an d lo w . IQ s c o r e s p ro v id e d th e

s e t for e a c h of th e th re e e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s . I t w a s h y p o th e s iz e d

t h a t Ss in th e th re e c o n d itio n s w ould d iffe r in th e ir v e rb a l r e s p o n s e p a t­

The p r e s e n t e x p e rim e n t, t h e r e f o r e , w a s d e s ig n e d to t e s t fiv e

r e la te d h y p o th e s e s . The h y p o th e s e s w ere th e fo llo w in g :

• (1) T h at Ss in th e " h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n w o u ld b e s ig ­

n if ic a n tly m ore p o s i t i v e , r e in fo r c in g , a n d e n c o u rag in g , in .

th e ir r e s p o n s e s th a n Ss in th e " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " and

" lo w e x p e c ta n c y ” c o n d itio n s .

(2) T hat Ss in th e " lo w e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n , on th e o th e r

h a n d , w o u ld te n d to b e m ore n e g a tiv e and p u n ish in g in

th e ir v e r b a liz a tio n s th a n Ss in th e "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " and

" a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n s .

(3) T h at Ss in th e "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n w o u ld a s k a

g r e a te r num ber of q u e s tio n s o f th e c h ild th a n w o u ld Ss

in th e " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " a n d " lo w e x p e c ta n c y " c o n ­

d itio n s . . .. ■

(4) T h a t Ss in th e " h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n w o u ld te n d to

m ak e a la rg e r n u m b er o f d ir e c tiv e an d i n s tr u c tiv e s ta te m e n ts

th a n Ss in th e o th e r tw o c o n d itio n s .

(5) T hat th e r e w o u ld b e a g r e a te r am ount of v e r b a liz a tio n in

th e " h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " g ro u p th a n in th e " lo w e x p e c ta n c y "

M ETHOD

' S u b je c ts .

T he Ss in t h i s s tu d y w e re 66 fe m a le v o lu n te e r s e n ro lle d a t The

- U n iv e rs ity of A rizona in E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y 151 d u rin g th e sp rin g

s e m e s t e r an d f i r s t sum m er s e s s i o n of 1 9 6 9 . T his c o u rs e i s re q u ire d for

a l l s tu d e n t te a c h e r s in th e C o lle g e o f E d u c a tio n a t The U n iv e r s ity of

A riz o n a . Ten Ss w e re g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts an d th e re m a in in g 56 Ss w ere

ju n io rs an d s e n i o r s . A ll Ss w ere p u rsu in g d e g r e e s in e le m e n ta ry or

s e c o n d a r y e d u c a tio n , and n o n e h a d p r e v io u s ly e n g a g e d in a n y ty p e of

. c la s s ro o m te a c h in g a t th e tim e of th e e x p e rim e n t. The a g e ra n g e w a s

from 19 to 48 y e a r s , w ith a m ean of 2 3 .9 y e a r s .

The 66 Ss w ere a s s ig n e d ra n d o m ly , 22 e a c h , to e a c h of th e th r e e e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s : th e " h ig h e x p e c t a n c y , 11 " a v e ra g e e x p e c - • f a n c y , " an d " lo w e x p e c ta n c y " g ro u p s a s d e fin e d b e lo w . M a te r ia ls an d A p p a ra tu s M a te r ia ls em p lo y ed in th is s tu d y c o n s is te d of th e fo llo w in g e q u ip m e n t: a n Am pex 5100 v id e o - ta p e d e c k , a M o to ro la te l e v i s i o n m o n i­

to r w ith a 2 1 - in c h s c r e e n , an A lte c 361B a u d io a m p lifie r, a n d o n e - in c h

M em ore x P re c is io n M a g n e tic v id e o t a p e . A Sony C h a n n e l M a s te r C a s s e t t e

ta p e r e c o rd e r an d Sony C -6 0 C o m p a ct ta p e c a s s e t t e s w ere u s e d for

re c o rd in g S s ' v e rb a l r e s p o n s e s d u rin g th e e x p e rim e n ta l s e s s i o n s .

- A 10-m in u te v i d e o - t a p e , w h ic h h a d b e e n e d ite d to in c lu d e 10

s e p a r a te s e g m e n ts of a p p ro x im a te ly o n e -m in u te d u ra tio n e a c h , w a s u s e d

a s th e s tim u lu s for a l l th re e e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s . Two r e v o lu tio n s of

b la n k ta p e w ere in s e r te d b e tw e e n e a c h of th e s e g m e n ts to a v o id c o n fu s io n in th e v ie w in g of th e t a p e . The c o n te n t of th e ta p e c o n s is te d of a n e i g h t - y e a r - o l d boy e n ­ g a g in g in an o b j e c t- s o r tin g t a s k u n d e r th e s u p e rv is io n of a n e u tra l t e s t e r . The t a s k w a s d iv id e d in to 10 p a rts c o rre s p o n d in g to th e 10 s e g m e n ts of th e t a p e . In th e f ir s t s e g m e n t th e c h ild w a s a s k e d to s o rt o u t a l l of th e ; re d o b je c ts from a la r g e r g roup o f o b je c ts on a ta b le b e fo re h im . In th e s e c o n d se g m e n t h e w a s a s k e d to s o rt o u t a l l o f th e p l a s t i c o b j e c t s . The c o n c e p t em p lo y ed in th e th ird se g m e n t w a s th a t of o b je c ts u s e d a s t o o l s , in th e fo u rth se g m e n t t h a t o f a l l w o o d en o b j e c t s , in th e fifth se g m e n t th a t of a l l m e ta l o b j e c t s , in th e s ix th se g m e n t th a t of k itc h e n o b j e c t s , in th e s e v e n th se g m e n t t h a t of c o n ta in e r s , in th e e ig h th se g m e n t t h a t of t o y s , in th e n in th se g m e n t t h a t of w h ite o b j e c t s , a n d in th e te n th se g m e n t th a t of n o i s e - m a k e r s .

A ttem pt w a s m ade th ro u g h o u t th e film in g a n d e d itin g of th e ta p e

to m ax im ize a m b ig u ity in th e v e rb a l b e h a v io r an d p erfo rm an ce o f th e c h ild ,

-S u c h 'w a s d o n e t o m in im iz e th e p o s s i b i l i t y of in tro d u c in g a d d itio n a l c u e s

w h ic h c o u ld a f f e c t th e e x p e c ta n c y of th e Ss in th e e x p e rim e n ta l v ie w in g

. o f th e t a p e . j

-. P ro c e d u re

% h ree .c o n d itio n s o f e x p e rim e n ta lly in d u c e d e x p e c ta n c y w ere

u tiliz e d in t h i s e x p e r im e n t. S ix ty - s ix S_s w ere a s s ig n e d ra n d o m ly to

e a c h o f th e th re e g ro u p s: H igh e x p e c ta n c y . A verage e x p e c ta n c y , a n d

Low e x p e c ta n c y . T w e n ty -tw o _Ss s e rv e d in e a c h c o n d itio n .

.:A v id e o - ta p e of an e i g h t - y e a r - o l d b o y e n g a g in g in a n o b je c t-

so rtin g t a s k s e rv e d a s th e s tim u lu s fo r Ss in a ll th re e c o n d itio n s . Ss in

th e " h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " g roup w ere to ld th a t th e c h ild h ad an IQ of 131,

p la c in g him a b o v e 95% o f th e p o p u la tio n in in te l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y . T h o s e .in

"the " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " group w ere in s tr u c te d th a t th e in t e l l e c t u a l

c a p a c i t y o f th e c h ild s e e n on th e ta p e w a s w ith in th e a v e ra g e r a n g e , w ith

a m e a s u re d IQ of 101. In th e "lo w e x p e c ta n c y " g r o u p , _Ss w ere to ld th a t

th e c h ild h a d b e e n t e s t e d a t th e " b o rd e rlin e - r e t a r d e d " le v e l an d t h a t he

h a d an. IQ of 7 1 . All o th e r f a c to r s of th e e x p e rim e n t w ere h e ld c o n s ta n t.

A ll S s w ere t e s t e d in d iv id u a lly a t tim e s a rra n g e d in a d v a n c e .

The a v e ra g e le n g th o f e a c h te s t i n g s e s s i o n w a s a p p ro x im a te ly 30 m in u te s ,

• w ith a ra n g e o f from 25 to 35 m in u te s .

U pon e n te r in g th e e x p e rim e n ta l room e a c h _S w a s s e a te d a t a

10

o f o p e ra tin g th e ta p e r e c o rd e r d ir e c tly in fro n t o f S, w ere e x p la in e d , an d

th e volum e c o n tro l w a s s e t a t th e a p p ro p ria te le v e l for e a c h S,.

I n s tr u c tio n s w e re id e n tic a l for a l l th re e e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s

' - ' ' ' .

w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e p a ra g ra p h in w h ic h th e a p p ro p ria te e x p e c ta n c y

w a s in d u c e d . A c o p y of th e in s tr u c tio n s (se e A ppendix A) w a s g iv e n to

e a c h S_ to fo llo w s il e n t l y a s th e y w ere r e a d a lo u d by;II.

• W hen th e d e t a i l s of th e p ro c e d u re h a d b eco m e c le a r to j3, th e

o v e rh e a d lig h t w a s e x tin g u is h e d , an d S_ b e g a n to v ie w th e t a p e . D uring

t h i s p a rt of th e e x p e rim e n t E. re m a in e d b e h in d a p o rta b le s c re e n to th e

rig h t of S_. In th i s p o s itio n IS w a s a b le .to c o n tro l th e t a p e - d e c k , sto p p in g

a n d s ta r tin g th e ta p e b e tw e e n s e g m e n ts . In a d d itio n , 8_ w a s "unable to s e e

E w h ile v ie w in g th e ta p e an d re c o rd in g h e r r e s p o n s e s d u rin g th e i n t e r ­

se g m e n t i n te r v a l.

A fter o b s e rv in g e a c h of th e 10 o n e -m in u te s e g m e n ts , tu rn e d

on th e ta p e re c o rd e r an d r e s p o n d e d v e r b a lly to th e c h ild , u s in g d ir e c t a d ­

d r e s s a s in s t r u c t e d . As m uch tim e a s n e c e s s a r y w a s a llo w e d fo r jS to r e s ­

pond to e a c h ta p e d s e q u e n c e . The so u n d o f th e s to p b u tto n on th e ta p e

re c o rd e r s e rv e d a s th e cu e fo r 13 to tu rn on th e n e x t se g m e n t of th e ta p e .

Im m e d ia te ly fo llo w in g S_'s r e s p o n s e to th e te n th s e g m e n t, a d d i­

tio n a l in s tr u c tio n s w ere "provided (se e A p p en d ix B). At th a t tim e Ss in a l l

th re e c o n d itio n s w ere a s k e d to fo rm u la te th e in s tr u c tio n s t h a t th e y w o uld

h a v e g iv e n to th e c h ild p rio r to th e t e s t i n g s e s s i o n in o rd e r to o rie n t him

# o a rec o rd h e r d ir e c tio n s to th e c h i l d . The f in a l in s tr u c tio n s g iv e n to th e

S s a f te r th e l a s t ta p e s e g m e n t w ere i d e n tic a l fo r a l l th re e e x p e rim e n ta l

c o n d i t i o n s .

..At t h e c o n c lu s io n of e a c h t e s t i n g s e s s i o n , jS w a s p ro m ised f e e d ­

b a c k on th e r e s u l t s of th e e x p e rim e n t. In a d d itio n , S_ w a s a s k e d n o t to

’d i s c u s s th e s tu d y w ith o th e r c l a s s m em b ers in o rd er t h a t e a c h S_ m ight

a p p ro a c h th e e x p e rim e n ta l s itu a tio n on a n e q u a l b a s i s . I t w a s h o p ed

th a t s u c h a n a d m o n itio n w o u ld s e r v e .a s a n a d d e d p re c a u tio n t h a t e x t r a -

e x p e rim e n ta l d i s c u s s io n w o u ld n o t ta k e p la c e and th e re b y je o p a rd iz e th e

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

S^s r e s p o n s e s w ere c o d e d d ir e c tly from th e ta p e s w h ic h h ad b e e n

re c o rd e d d u rin g th e t e s tin g s e s s i o n s . C o d in g w a s a c c o m p lis h e d w ith o u t

im m e d ia te k n o w le d g e o f th e c o n d itio n s of e x p e c ta n c y in w h ic h Ss h ad .

s e r v e d . To in s u r e c o n s is te n c y in th is p r o c e d u re , E_ w a s th e s in g le ju d g e

o f ta p e s in a l l e x p e c ta n c y c o n d itio n s . A ttem pt w a s m ade to a s c e r t a i n

in tra c o d e r r e l ia b il i t y b y m e a n s of d o u b le co d in g of 20% of th e t a p e s .

Four c l a s s e s o f v e rb a l r e s p o n s e s w ere of e x p e rim e n ta l i n te r e s t:

p o s itiv e s ta t e m e n t s , n e g a tiv e s t a t e m e n t s , q u e s ti o n s , an d in s tr u c tio n a l

s t a t e m e n t s . The t o ta l num ber of w o rd s u s e d b y e a c h S_ c o n s titu te d th e

f ifth m e a s u r e . A fre q u e n c y c o u n t w a s m ad e of th e o c c u rre n c e of th e s e

v a r i a b l e s .

C a te g o r iz a tio n of v e rb a l r e s p o n s e s w a s a c c o m p lis h e d u s in g th e

fo llo w in g c r ite r ia fo r in c lu s io n in e a c h of th e four m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e

c l a s s e s :

(1) P o s itiv e S ta te m e n ts . :

All w o rd s of p r a i s e , e n c o u ra g e m e n t, a p p ro v a l, and rew ard

w e re in c lu d e d in th is c a te g o r y . For e x a m p le , " g o o d ,"

" f i n e ," an d " e x c e lle n t" e a c h r e c e iv e d a s c o re of one

. p o in t. All s ta te m e n ts in d ic a tin g p l e a s u r e , s a t i s f a c t i o n , or

a c c e p ta n c e of th e c h i l d 's p erfo rm an ce w ere lik e w is e

;iBCluded,.as were

a ll statemejits commending the -eMM in

■

^sny w sy. Some exampleg ar6 the following: "You .certainly ,

•4o know which

.objects

are to o ls

J

" or J'Johnny, you must be

s big help to your mother in the kitchen!" or "Yes, you

w ere correct in your choice of the metal o b jects/'

Com-■ments -such as ".That was a very good job. You certainly

-are a smart boy!" were scored as two separate statements,

ieach of which received one point. Each sentence or sen­

tence fragment (in the case of incorrect grammatical usage)

meeting the above criteria was coded as one instance of a

■:positive.statement..

;

(2) . Negative Statements.

.All utterances indicating displeasure with the child and/or

. his performance were placed in this category. All punishing,

demeaning, reprimanding, and reproving statements were

included. All statements indicating that the child had per­

formed in a le ss than satisfactory manner were coded as

negative statements. Some examples are the following:

"You forgot the hammer." or "That wasn't very good this

time, " or "I don't think you really found all the t o o ls ."

Each statement received one point. Comments such as

"Jo h n n y , I d o n 't th in k you w ere p ay in g a tte n t i o n . Y o u 'll

s t a t e m e n t s , e a c h r e c e iv in g one p o in t. O nce a g a in , e a c h

s e n te n c e or s e n te n c e fra g m e n t m e e tin g t h e s e c r ite r ia w a s

c o d e d a s one in s ta n c e o f a n e g a tiv e s ta te m e n t. "

(3) Q u e s t io n s .

E ach s e n te n c e or s e n te n c e fra g m e n t p h ra se d in in te rro g a tiv e

form w a s c o d e d in th e q u e s tio n c a te g o r y . For e x a m p le , "D o

you know w h ere m e ta l c o m e s fro m ? " or "D id you p ic k o u t

a l l of th e p l a s t i c o b j e c t s ? " E ach q u e s tio n r e c e iv e d one

p o in t.

(4) I n s tr u c tio n a l S ta te m e n ts . •

T h is c a te g o r y in c lu d e d a l l d i r e c t iv e , i n s t r u c t i v e , a n d in fo r­

m a tio n -g iv in g s ta te m e n ts . For e x a m p le , "Jo h n n y , c h o o s e

a l l o f th e re d o b j e c t s ." o r "T here are m an y d iffe re n t ty p e s

of m e t a l s ." or " L e t's go on to th e n e x t t a s k n o w ." E ach

s e n te n c e or s e n te n c e frag m en t s ta te d in im p e ra tiv e form w a s

. . in c lu d e d in th is c a te g o r y an d e a c h r e c e iv e d o ne p o in t. Any

co m m en ts o rd in a rily c o n s id e re d to be le c tu r e m a te r ia l w ere

in c lu d e d . In th e c a s e of le n g th y d i s c o u r s e s , th e v e r b a li­

z a tio n s w ere b ro k en dow n b y s e n t e n c e s , w ith e a c h s e n te n c e

r e c e iv in g o ne p o in t.

A m e a s u re of th e fifth v a r ia b le of i n t e r e s t , th e t o ta l num ber of

w o r d s , w a s o b ta in e d b y a sim p le fre q u e n c y c o u n t of th e to ta l num ber of

w a s c o u n te d a s a s in g le w o rd . T h is c a te g o r y e n c o m p a s s e d th e p re c e d in g

fo u r c a te g o r ie s a l s o , s in c e no d is tin c tio n w a s m ade a s to ty p e of r e s ­

p o n se u tte re d for p u rp o s e s o f th e w ord c o u n t. In a d d itio n , a n y v e r b a li­

z a tio n s , n o t m e e tin g th e c r ite r ia fo r in c lu s io n in o ne o f th e ab o v e •:

c a te g o r ie s w a s c o n s id e re d in o b ta in in g a fre q u e n c y c o u n t of th e t o ta l

num ber of w o rd s . T h is c a te g o r y r e p r e s e n ts th e o n ly m e a s u re w h ic h w a s

n o t m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e of th e o th e r m e a s u r e s . .

A c o u n t of v e rb a l r e s p o n s e s m e e tin g th e c r ite r ia for in c lu s io n in

e a c h o f th e four c l a s s e s w a s o b ta in e d for a l l S s . S e p a ra te t a l l i e s w ere

m ade for e a c h o f th e 10 s e g m e n ts o f ta p e an d for th e s e c tio n in w h ich

d ir e c tio n s w ere g iv e n to th e c h ild b y £3. L ik e w ise , a c o u n t of th e num ber

of w o rd s sp o k e n in r e s p o n s e to e a c h s e g m e n t and th e num ber of w ords

s p o k e n in g iv in g d ir e c tio n s to th e c h ild w a s o b ta in e d . F o llo w in g th e c o d in g of th e t a p e s , th e n e x t s te p i n th e p re p a ra ­ tio n of th e d a ta for s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s is w a s i n i t i a t e d . T h is in v o lv e d th e c o m b in in g of to t a l s for th e e n tire ta p e - r e c o r d e d r e s p o n s e re c o rd o f e a c h S_ in to a s in g le s c o re for e a c h S on th e fiv e r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s . T h u s, s c o r e s o b ta in e d in e a c h of th e fiv e r e s p o n s e c a te g o r ie s for a l l 10 s e g ­

m e n ts and for th e d ir e c tio n s w ere g ro u p ed to g e th e r in th e ir r e s p e c tiv e

c a t e g o r i e s . Such a p ro ce d u re y ie ld e d o ne s c o re fo r e v e ry S_ on e a c h o f

th e fiv e v e r b a l r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s . All 66 S s , t h e r e f o r e , w ere a s s ig n e d

fiv e s c o r e s . The m e a n s of th e group s c o r e s on a l l r e s p o n s e m e a s u re s for

T ab le 1. M e a n s of H ig h , A v e ra g e , an d Low E x p e c ta n c y G ro u p s on F iv e R e s p o n s e M e a s u r e s

R e s p o n s e M e a s u re

C o n d itio n s

H igh A verage Low

P o s itiv e S ta te m e n ts 5 .2 7 COCM , O ' 7. 82 N e g a tiv e S ta te m e n ts [41 .2 3 . - »55 Q u e s tio n s 1 8 .2 3 1 8 .6 8 10. 82 I n s tr u c tio n a l S ta te m e n ts 1 9 .9 5 . .2 2 .0 5 17. 05 T o ta l N um ber of W ords 4 4 3 .3 2 4 5 8 .7 3 3 4 8 . 32

The d a ta su m m arized in T ab le 1 w ere s u b je c te d to fiv e o n e - w a y

a n a ly s e s o f v a r ia n c e . The sum m ary t a b le s for th e s e a n a ly s e s a re p re ­

s e n te d in T ab le 2.

The r e s u l t s show t h a t no s ig n if ic a n t d iff e r e n c e s am ong th e "h ig h

e x p e c t a n c y , " " a v e ra g e e x p e c t a n c y , " an d "lo w e x p e c ta n c y " g ro u p s w ere

o b ta in e d . T h u s , i t w a s n e c e s s a r y to r e j e c t th e e x p e rim e n ta l h y p o th e s e s ,

a n d to a c c e p t th e n u ll h y p o th e s is th a t no d iff e r e n c e s g r e a te r th a n c h a n c e

d o .in f a c t e x i s t am ong th e th re e g ro u p s on th e r e s p o n s e m e a s u re s t e s t e d .

. A lthough d iff e r e n c e s am ong p o p u la tio n m ean s f a ile d to re a c h

S ig n ific a n c e l e v e l , c lo s e r o b s e rv a tio n of th e group m e a n s o f th e "h ig h

e x p e c ta n c y " an d th e "lo w e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n s sh o w ed c o n s id e ra b le

v a r ia tio n on som e of th e m e a s u r e s - ( s e e T a b le l ) . The m e a n s of th e

17

T a b le .2. Sum m ary o f A n a ly s e s of V arian ce fo r F iv e R e s p o n s e M e a s u r e s

P o s itiv e S ta te m e n ts

Source M e a n S quare D . F . F -R a tio P

T o ta l . 5 1 .1 9 •; ■ 65

G ro u p s 3 9 .0 5 2 .7 6 „ 52

E rro r (G) 5 1 .5 8 63

N e g a tiv e S ta te m e n ts

.Source M e a n Square D . F . F -R a tio P

T o ta l ,8 3 65

G ro u p s ,5 6 2 .6 7 . .5 2

E rro r (G) .8 4 63

Q u e s tio n s

S o u rce M e a n S quare -D. F . F -R a tio P

T o ta l 2 8 0 .0 8 , 5 ' '

G ro u p s 4 2 8 .7 7 2 1 .5 6 .2 2 E rro r (G) ,2 7 5 .3 6 63

I n s tr u c tio n a l S ta te m e n ts

S o u rce M e an Square D . F . F -R a tio P

T o ta l 3 3 3 .1 4 65

G ro u p s 1 3 8 .7 3 ; 2 .4 1 .6 7 Error (G) 3 3 9 .3 2 63

T o ta l Number- of W ords

S o u rce M e an Square D . F . F -R a tio P

T o tal 8 8 ,0 3 9 .6 5 65

G ro u p s 7 8 ,6 5 9 .5 6 2 .8 9 .5 8 Error (G) 8 8 ,3 3 7 .4 3 63

b e tw e e n , or ab o v e th e o th e r tw o g roup m e a n s on a ll fiv e m e a s u r e s . T h u s ,

i t w a s th o u g h t t h a t , p e r h a p s , a s c a lin g problem e x i s t e d .

M ore p r e c i s e l y , i t w a s n o t im m e d ia te ly e v id e n t w h e th e r th e

m e a n s o f th e a v e ra g e g roup e v e n c o u ld b e c o n s id e re d a s f a llin g on th e

sam e s c a le a s th e m e a n s of th e h ig h an d th e lo w g r o u p s . The p o s s ib ility

. re m a in e d t h a t th e " h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " and "lo w e x p e c ta n c y " g ro u p s' r e s ­

p o n s e s w e r e , in d e e d , e x tr e m e - r e s p o n s e s , f a llin g e ith e r a t th e tw o o p p o ­

s it e e n d s o f a co n tin u u m or c l o s e r to a s in g le e n d .

G iv en su c h c o n s id e r a tio n s , s e v e r a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s re m a in e d w ith

r e s p e c t to th e m e a n s of th e " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n . O ne a l t e r ­

n a tiv e w ould h a v e th e a v e ra g e g r o u p 's m e a n s p la c e d on th e sam e s c a le

a s th e m e a n s of th e h ig h and low g r o u p s . The o th e r a lte r n a tiv e p o s s i b i ­

l i t y w o u ld p la c e th e m e a n s of th e " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n on a n

e n tir e ly d iffe re n t s c a le th a n th e m e a n s o f th e "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " an d "lo w

e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n s .

I t w a s found th a t for four o f th e fiv e r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s , th e

m ean of th e a v e ra g e g roup te n d e d to f a ll q u ite c lo s e to th e m ean of one

o f th e o th e r tw o g r o u p s . S uch w a s tru e fo r th e fo llo w in g fo u r m e a s u re s :

p o s itiv e s ta te m e n ts , q u e s ti o n s , in s tr u c tio n a l s ta te m e n ts , a n d to ta l num ­

b e r o f w o r d s . H o w e v e r, i t w a s u n tru e fo r th e n e g a tiv e s ta te m e n t r e s p o n s e

m e a s u r e . In th a t i n s t a n c e , th e m ean of th e " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " group

w a s n o t c lo s e to e ith e r one of th e o th e r tw o m e a n s , w h ic h w ere s e p a ra te d

■ : - : ■ ■ 19

o f th e n e g a tiv e s ta te m e n ts c a te g o r y , th e a v e ra g e g roup f e ll to th e lo w er

e n d of th e co n tin u u m a n d th e low g ro u p to th e h ig h e r e n d o f th e co n tin u u m

w ith t h e h ig h g roup f a llin g in b e tw e e n , b u t s lig h tly c l o s e r to th e low -

g ro u p th a n to th e a v e ra g e g ro u p . On th re e o f th e fo u r m e a s u re s m e n tio n e d a b o v e on w h ich th e g ro u p m ean of th e " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n te n d e d to f a ll c lo s e r t o th e m ean of o ne of th e tw o re m a in in g g ro u p s th a n to th e m ean of th e •other g r o u p , th e m e a n s of th e " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " g ro u p w ere c lo s e r to th e m e a n s of th e "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " g r o u p . O nly in o ne i n s ta n c e w a s th is fo u n d n o t to b e th e c a s e . The m e a n s of th e a v e ra g e an d low g ro u p s f e ll

q u ite c lo s e to g e th e r for th e p o s itiv e s ta te m e n t v a r i a b l e , w ith th e m ean of

t h e h ig h g roup f a llin g a c o n s id e ra b le d i s t a n c e b e lo w th e m . C a lc u la tio n s

o f e x a c t d i s t a n c e s of th e th re e g ro u p s' m e a n s from e a c h o th e r for a l l fiv e

r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s , p r e s e n te d from l e s s e r to g r e a te r in te rm s of to ta ls on

th e sam e s c a l e , w ith in te rv e n in g d i s t a n c e s in d ic a te d , m ay b e found in

T ab le 3 . T h is in fo rm a tio n i s r e p r e s e n te d on th e sam e s c a le for th e s a k e

o f c o n v e n ie n c e of p r e s e n ta tio n . Such ta b le d p r e s e n ta tio n s in no w ay i n ­

d ic a te th a t th e " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " g ro u p a c t u a l l y b e lo n g s on th e sam e

s c a l e a s th e "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " and th e " lo w e x p e c ta n c y " g r o u p s .

I t b e c a m e o b v io u s w hen co m p arin g th e m e a n s of th e th re e c o n ­

d itio n s on e a c h of th e fiv e r e s p o n s e m e a s u re s t h a t th e m e a n s f a ile d to

perform a s w ould b e e x p e c te d if th e y r e f le c te d a s in g le s c a l e d im e n s io n ,

T a b le 3 . C ontinuum of M e a n s and In te rv e n in g D is ta n c e s fo r Three C o n d itio n s on F iv e R e s p o n s e M e a s u r e s C o n tinuum R e s p o n s e M e a s u re L e s s e r M ean In te rv e n in g D is ta n c e M id d le M ean In te rv e n in g D is ta n c e G re a te r M ean . P o s itiv e S ta te m e n ts 5 .2 7 (H igh)3 1 .9 5 7 .2 3 ..(Average) .5 9 - 7 .8 2 (Low) N e g a tiv e S ta te m e n ts .2 3 (Average) .1 8 .4 1 . (High) .1 4 .5 5 (Low) Q u e s tio n s 1 0 .8 2 (Low) 7 .4 1 1 8 .2 3 (High) .4 5 1 8 .6 8 (Average) I n s tr u c tio n a l S ta te m e n ts 1 7 .0 5 (Low) 2 .9 1 1 9 .9 5 (High) 2 .0 9 2 2 .0 5 (Average) T o ta l N um ber o f W ords 3 4 8 .3 2 (Low) 9 5 .0 0 4 4 3 .3 2 (High) 1 5 .4 1 4 5 8 .7 3 (Average) a W ords in p a r e n th e s e s b e n e a th m e a n s in d ic a te c o n d itio n of e x p e c ta n c y .. s e p a r a te s c a l e s do in f a c t e x i s t for th e th re e e x p e c ta n c y c o n d i t i o n s , th e n

w e m ay le g itim a te ly com pare th e m e a n s o f th e tw o g ro u p s f a llin g on one

o f th o s e s c a l e s w h ile e lim in a tin g from th e c o m p a riso n th e g roup f a llin g on

th e s e c o n d s c a l e . T h e re fo re , b y m e a n s of fiv e t - t e s t s th e m e a n s of th e

"h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " and " lo w e x p e c ta n c y " g ro u p s w ere co m p ared for e a c h

21

O b je c tio n s h a v e b e e n a d v a n c e d a g a i n s t su c h p o s t h o c a n a ly s e s

a f t e r n e g a tiv e r e s u l t s h a v e b e e n o b ta in e d b y m e a n s o f th e a n a l y s is of

v a r ia n c e (Barber a n d S ilv e r, 1968a) . H o w e v e r, in th is c a s e i t w a s f e lt

S h a t s u c h a n a n a l y s is w o u ld s e rv e a le g itim a te an d in fo rm a tiv e p u rp o se

ad u eS o th e n o n - d e f in itiv e n a tu re of th e s c a lin g of s c o re s an d m e a n s fo r th e

S h r e e e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s . S u ch a n a l y s e s h a v e n o t b e e n uncom m on in

•^expectancy r e s e a r c h (R o s e n th a l, P er s i n g e r , M u lr y , V ik a n -K lin e , and

G r o th e , 1964; B arber an d S ilv e r, 1 9 6 8 b ; R o s e n th a l, Per s in g e r , V ik an -

K lin e , and F o d e , 1963; R o s e n th a l, 1 968b).

The r e s u l t s of t - t e s t s ( o n e -ta ile d ) on a ll fiv e v a r ia b le s f a ile d to

s u p p o rt th e h y p o th e s is t h a t th e m e a n s of th e " h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " and "lo w e x p e c ta n c y " g ro u p s w o u ld d iffe r s ig n if ic a n tly . H o w e v e r, fo r tw o of th e r e s p o n s e m e a s u re s th e o b ta in e d t v a lu e s w ere found to be a p p ro a c h in g th e .0 5 le v e l of s ig n if ic a n c e . For th e P o s itiv e S ta te m e n ts m e a s u re th e o b ta in e d v a lu e fo r t w a s 1. 28 an d th e a s s o c i a t e d p v a lu e w a s p = „ 10 w h ic h a p p ro a c h e s s ig n if ic a n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l . The t v a lu e for th e

Q u e s tio n c a te g o r y w a s 1 .4 4 w h ich h a d a c o rre s p o n d in g p v a lu e of p = . 10

w h ic h a l s o a p p ro a c h e s s ig n if ic a n c e a t th e .0 5 le v e l w ith 42 d e g re e s of

fre e d o m . The o b ta in e d t v a lu e s for th e o th e r th re e r e s p o n s e m e a s u re s

f a ile d to r e a c h th e le v e l of th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d v a r i a b l e s . For th e t o t a l

n u m b er of w ords th e t w a s .9 9 w ith a p = . 2 5 , a n d fo r th e n e g a tiv e s t a t e ­

m e n ts c a te g o ry t w a s .4 5 w ith a p = 0 . 3 0 . The o b ta in e d t v a lu e for th e In ­

' ' 22

C e rta in tre n d s in th e p re d ic te d d ir e c tio n s a re e v id e n t in th e d a ta

fo r th e N e g a tiv e S ta te m e n ts r e s p o n s e m e a s u re . H o w e v e r, th e d ir e c tio n ­

a l i t y of th e o th e r m e a s u re s i s o p p o s ite to p r e d ic tio n .

-. It w a s h y p o th e s iz e d th a t th e Ss in th e "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " group

w ould b e m ore p o s itiv e ., e n c o u ra g in g , and re w a rd in g in th e ir v e rb a l r e s ­

p o n s e s to th e c h ild th a n w ould ^Ss.in th e " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " an d "lo w

e x p e c ta n c y " g r o u p s . The r e s u l t s o f th e a n a l y s is of v a r ia n c e a s w e ll a s

th e t t e s t for d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e m e a n s of th e h ig h an d lo w g ro u p s

f a ile d to s u p p o rt s u c h a n h y p o t h e s i s , h o w e v e r. I n f a c t , in te rm s o f m ean

s c o r e s fo r e a c h of th e th re e g r o u p s , th e "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " g roup w as

- lo w e s t w ith a m ean s c o re o f 5 .2 7 . The "lo w e x p e c ta n c y " g roup w a s

h ig h e s t w ith a m ean s c o re of 7 .8 2 , an d th e " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " group

f e l l b e tw e e n th e a b o v e tw o g ro u p s , b u t c l o s e s t to th e " lo w e x p e c ta n c y "

g roup w ith a m ean s c o re o f 7 .2 3 . T h u s , th e r e s u l t s , th o u g h n o t s ig n if i- . .

c a n t , w ere in th e o p p o s ite d ire c tio n from th a t w h ich w a s p r e d ic te d .

I t w ould n o t b e le g itim a te to c o n c lu d e on th e b a s i s of th is f in d in g ,

h o w e v e r, th a t c h ild re n b e lie v e d to be b rig h t a re e x p o s e d to l e s s p o s itiv e

in te r a c tio n w ith t e a c h e r s an d to l e s s re in fo rc e m e n t of o th e r k in d s th a n

t h e i r a v e ra g e or d u lle r p e e r s . W h at c a n s a f e ly be a s s u m e d i s th a t in th e

p a r tic u la r c ir c u m s ta n c e s of th is s tu d y , Ss in th e "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " c o n ­

d itio n m ade fe w e r p o s itiv e co m m en ts (as d e fin e d fo r th is stu d y ) th a n d id

Ss in th e o th e r tw o c o n d i t i o n s . I t m ay w e ll be th a t in d e a lin g w ith g ifte d

23

w h ic h p ro v id e s s u b s t a n t i a l r e in fo rc e m e n t to s u c h s tu d e n ts (Kaplan an d

-S p rin g er, 1 9 6 7 ). A n o th er p o s s i b i l i t y m a y in v o lv e re in fo rc e m e n t h i s to r ie s

o f a .s u b s t a n t i a l l y d iffe re n t n a tu re f o r th e b rig h t p u p ils th a n fo r th e ir l e s s

w e ll- e n d o w e d p e e r s .

’The .N eg ativ e S ta te m e n t m e a s u r e , a lth o u g h n o n - s ig n if ic a n t

(F = . 6 7 , p — . 5 2 ), w a s in th e p r e d ic te d d ire c tio n in te rm s o f m e a n s c o r e s .

T he "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " g roup a v e ra g e d .2 3 , a n d a s p re d ic te d th e " low

e x p e c ta n c y " g roup r e c e iv e d th e h ig h e s t m e a n s c o re of .5 5 . Such low

-o v e ra ll t o t a l s on a m e a s u re of th is ty p e a re n o t u n u s u a l in th a t th e g e n e ­

r a l tre n d i n te a c h e r tr a in in g e m p h a s iz e s th e p o s itiv e a p p ro a c h in d e a lin g

w ith s tu d e n ts an d v ie w s p u n ish m e n t w ith d is f a v o r (H a v ig h u rs t, 1965).

T h u s , e s p e c i a l l y w h en o b s e r v e d , t e a c h e r s te n d to u tte r v e ry fe w n e g a tiv e

s ta te m e n ts (W an t, 1952). R e c e n tly , h o w e v e r, an in g e n io u s in v e s tig a to r

a t th e U n iv e r s ity of M ic h ig a n o b ta in e d d a ta from "b u g g ed " c la s s ro o m s

w h ic h w h en co m p ared w ith th e sam e ty p e o f m e a s u re s o b ta in e d w ith th e

t e a c h e r 's k n o w led g e th a t s h e w a s b e in g o b s e rv e d sh o w ed v a s t l y d iv e r ­

g e n t r e s u l t s . N ot s u r p r is in g ly , th e fin d in g s w ere in th e d ire c tio n o f fa r

g r e a te r am o u n ts of n e g a tiv e an d p u n ish in g b e h a v io r e m itte d by th e t e a c h e r s

w h en th e y w ere u n a w a re t h a t th e y w ere b e in g re c o rd e d (Sam ph, 1968).

T he a n a l y s i s of v a r ia n c e y ie ld e d r e s u l t s on th e th ird v a r ia b le o f

i n t e r e s t . Q u e s tio n s , w h ich a g a in f a ile d to su p p o rt th e h y p o th e s is t h a t Ss

in th e "h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n w ould a s k a s ig n if ic a n tly g re a te r num ­

v \

■

■

'

■

(F - 1 .5 6 , p - .2 2 ) . A lth o u g h th e fin d in g s w ere n o n - s ig n if ic a n t for t h i s

v a r ia b le a n d f a ile d to s u p p o rt th e e x p e rim e n ta l h y p o t h e s i s , th e re did

e x i s t a la rg e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e t o ta l m ean s c o re s fo r th e "h ig h

e x p e c ta n c y " an d " lo w e x p e c ta n c y " g ro u p s (se e T ab le 1). H o w e v e r, th e

" a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " g r o u p 's t o ta l s c o re on th is m e a s u re w a s 1 8 .6 8 , or

a to ta l o f 10 p o in ts h ig h e r th a n th e s c o re o b ta in e d by th e " h ig h e x p e c t­

a n c y " g ro u p i The m ean s c o re o b ta in e d b y th e "lo w e x p e c ta n c y " group

w a s 1 0 .8 2 .

The sam e ty p e o f phenom enon w a s e v id e n c e d in th e a n a l y s is of

v a r i a n c e .r e s u lt s for th e fo u rth v a ria b le .. I n s tr u c tio n a l S ta te m e n ts (F = .4 1 ,

p = .6 7 ) . T h is fin d in g w a s n e ith e r s ig n if ic a n t n o r w a s th e m ean in th e

p re d ic te d d i r e c t io n . The g r e a t e s t num ber of I n s tr u c tio n a l S ta te m e n ts h a d

b e e n h y p o th e s iz e d fo r Ss in th e " h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n , a n d y e t th e

r e s u l t s sh o w ed t h a t in te rm s of g roup t o t a l s , th e Ss in th e " a v e ra g e

e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n m ade a la r g e r num ber o f I n s tr u c tio n a l S ta te m e n ts

(se e T a b le 1) . The m ean num ber of s u c h s ta te m e n ts m ad e b y Ss in th e

h ig h g roup w a s 1 9 .9 5 , a n d in th e a v e ra g e g roup i t w a s 22 .,05. T his r e p ­

r e s e n t s a d iffe re n c e of 2 .1 0 s ta te m e n ts c l a s s i f i e d a s b e lo n g in g in th is

c a te g o r y . Ss in th e " lo w e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n m ade a t o t a l of 375 s u c h

r e s p o n s e s , w ith a m ean "score of 1 7 .0 5 fo r th e g ro u p .

The p a tte rn for th e fifth m e a s u r e , t o ta l n um ber of w o r d s , w a s

e s s e n t i a l l y id e n tic a l to th o s e of th e tw o p re c e d in g m e a s u r e s . A n a ly s is

2 5

- 5 8 (s e e T ab le 2).. O n ce a g a in , th e o b ta in e d r e s u l t w a s n o t s ig n if ic a n t,

■nor w a s i t in th e p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n . I t h a d b e e n h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t J3s

i n t h e " h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " c o n d itio n w o u ld u tte r a la r g e r t o t a l n u m b er of

-Twords th a n w o u ld jSs in th e o th e r tw o c o n d itio n s . T h is h y p o th e s is f a ile d

rto r e c e i v e c o n firm a tio n i n t h i s s tu d y . I t w a s t r u e , h o w e v e r, t h a t th e

m e a n s c o re on t h i s m e a s u re for th e " h ig h e x p e c ta n c y " g roup (443. 32)

■was g r e a te r th a n th e m ean s c o re o b ta in e d b y th e "lo w e x p e c ta n c y " group

(348. 32). The " a v e ra g e e x p e c ta n c y " g r o u p , h o w e v e r , e x c e e d e d b o th

o th e r g ro u p s in term s of to ta l s c o re w ith a m ean s c o re o f 4 5 8 . 73 (se e

T a b le 1).

. .

'

' • ■

■

■■ *

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\

•

rth e y w ere in te r a c tin g w ith a b rig h t c h i l d , a s o p p o se d to a d u ll c h ild ,

^attem pted to p ro v id e.m o re in fo rm a tio n a n d to g iv e m ore i n s t r u c t i o n s . T h is

i s e s s e n t i a l l y th e fin d in g o f B eez (1967) a l s o . He d e m o n s tra te d th a t w h en

t e a c h e r s b e lie v e d th a t a c h ild w a s b rig h t th e y a tte m p te d to te a c h him m o r e ,

to im p a rt to him a g r e a te r q u a n tity of in fo rm a tio n . I t w ould n o t b e i l l o g i ­

c a l , t h e n , to a s s u m e t h a t s u c h a te a c h in g a p p ro a c h w ould n e c e s s i t a t e

n o t o n ly th e m ak in g of a la rg e r num ber o f in s tr u c tio n a l ty p e s of s ta t e m e n t s ,

b u t a l s o th e a s k in g of a g r e a te r num ber of q u e s tio n s of th e c h ild c o n ­

s id e re d s m a rte r. S uch te a c h in g b e h a v io r s , in t u r n , w o u ld seem to n e c e s ­

s i t a t e th e u s e of a g r e a te r n u m b er of w o rd s b y th e sim p le f a c t t h a t , on th e

a v e r a g e , m ore i s b e in g s a id b y th e t e a c h e r . T h is l a s t s ta te m e n t m ight

q u a lity , : It m ay b e e v e n m ore tru e t h a t te a c h e r s of g ifte d c h ild re n u s e

fe w e r, b u t m ore m e a n in g fu l w o rd s , a n d th a t th e y te n d to r e p e a t th e m s e lv e s

l e s s d ue to th e a ttrib u tio n o f g r e a te r p o w ers of u n d e rs ta n d in g to th e

.APPENDIX A

INSTRUCTIONS

T h is s tu d y in v o lv e s a n e w e d u c a tio n a l te c h n iq u e ^ c a lle d m i c r o - te a c h in g , w h ich h a s b e e n found

u s e f u l in te a c h e r tr a in in g . In a few m om ents y o u w ill o b s e rv e a v id e o - ta p e of a m ic ro ­

te a c h in g s e s s i o n in w h ich a te a c h e r i s a tte m p t- ■ i n g to tr a in .

(The fo llo w in g p o rtio n o f th e I n s tr u c tio n s w a s v a r ie d d e p e n d in g upon th e

c o n d itio n of e x p e rim e n ta l e x p e c ta n c y in w h ic h S_ w a s s e r v in g .)

'■High .E x p ectan cy : a g ifte d c h ild on c o n c e p t-fo rm a tio n t a s k s . The ' c h ild i s an e i g h t - y e a r - o l d b o y of s u p e rio r i n t e l ­ l e c t u a l a b i l i t y - - w i t h a m e a s u re d IQ of 131 (th is m e a n s th a t h e i s a b o v e 95% of th e p o p u la tio n in

i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c ity ) .

A v erag e E x p e c ta n c y : . a n a v e ra g e c h ild on c o n c e p t-fo rm a tio n t a s k s . The c h ild i s a n e i g h t - y e a r - o l d b o y of a v e ra g e i n t e l ­ l e c t u a l a b i l i t y — w ith a m e a s u re d IQ of 101 (th is m e a n s th a t h e i s w ith in th e sam e ra n g e a s 68%

o f th e p o p u la tio n in i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t y ) .

Low E x p e c ta n c y : a b o rd e rlin e r e ta rd e d c h ild on c o n c e p t-fo rm a tio n t a s k s . The c h ild i s a n e i g h t - y e a r - o l d b oy of lo w i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y — w ith a m e a s u re d IQ of 71

(th is m e a n s th a t he i s b e lo w 95% of th e pop u ­ la tio n in i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c ity ) .

(The re m a in d e r of th e I n s tr u c tio n s w a s i d e n t i c a l for a l l tre a tm e n t c o n d itio n s .)

A fte r e a c h of th e 10 o n e -m in u te s e g m e n ts , th e ta p e w ill b e s to p p e d . At t h a t tim e tr y to p la c e y o u rs e lf in th e p o s itio n of th e t e a c h e r — a s i f you w ere

w o rk in g w ith th e c h ild h e re in th is room — and m ake w h a te v e r co m m en ts you w is h , if a n y , d ir e c tly to

28

him w ith re g a rd to h is p erfo rm an ce „ There i s no o n e s p e c if ic a p p ro a c h th a t you m u st u s e — no r i s th e re an y w rong a p p r o a c h . S im ply h a n d le th e s itu a tio n in th e m a n n e r you th in k b e s t for th e c h i l d , c o n s id e rin g h is p erfo rm an ce an d h is a b i l i t y l e v e l .

. P le a s e id e n tify th e se g m e n t b y num ber e a c h tim e y ou tu rn on th e re c o rd e r ( e . g . , "S eg m en t 1 "), or if you fo rg e t th e num ber sim p ly m e n tio n th e c a t e ­ g o ry o f o b je c ts in v o lv e d ( e .g . , "Red o b je c ts " ) — a n d th e n go on to m ake your c o m m e n ts. If you h a v e no com m ent to m ake for a s e g m e n t, id e n tify i t b y n um ber or c a te g o ry and th e n s a y "No com.-: m e n t . "

If t h i s i s u n c le a r , p le a s e a s k a n y q u e s tio n s you h a v e b e fo re w e b e g in .

. ..APPENDIX B

.F in al I n s tr u c tio n s

Mow t h a t you h a v e v ie w e d th e e n tire t a p e ,

. t r y to fo rm u la te t h e .in s tru c tio n s w h ic h y o u

•-■would h a v e g iv e n to th e c h ild a t th e b e g in ­

n in g of th e s e s s i o n in o rd e r to o rie n t him

--to t h e t a s k a t h a n d . A fter you h a v e th o u g h t

fo r a m o m e n t, s p e a k d ir e c tly to th e c h ild

•.once a g a in — a s if h e w ere h e re in th is ro o m .

. (P le a s e p re c e d e w h a t y ou a re a b o u t to re c o rd

b y th e w o r d '" I n s t r u c t io n s ." )