TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.No.
S.No. TITLE TITLE P.No.P.No.
1 INTRODUCTION 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Objective 1.1 Objective 1.2 Block Diagram 1.2 Block Diagram
1.3 Outline of the Block Diagram 1.3 Outline of the Block Diagram
2
2 DESCRIPTION OF DESCRIPTION OF THE THE PROJECTPROJECT 2.1 Circuit Description 2.1 Circuit Description 2.2 Working Description 2.2 Working Description 2.2.1 Entering 2.2.1 Entering 2.2.2 Leaving 2.2.2 Leaving 3
3 HARDWARE DESCRIPTIONHARDWARE DESCRIPTION 3.1 Microcontroller 3.1 Microcontroller
3.1.1
3.1.1 Pin Pin DiagramDiagram 3.1.2 Pin Descriptions 3.1.2 Pin Descriptions 3.1.3 Microcontroller Architechture 3.1.3 Microcontroller Architechture 3.2 LCD Display 3.2 LCD Display 3.2.1 Pin Configurations 3.2.1 Pin Configurations 3.2.2 Characteristics 3.2.2 Characteristics 3.3 Motors 3.3 Motors
3.3.1 Permanent Magnet Motors 3.3.1 Permanent Magnet Motors
3.3.2 Stepper Motor Drivers 3.3.2 Stepper Motor Drivers 3.4 Motors 3.4 Motors 3.5 Sensors 3.5 Sensors 3.5.1 Specifications 3.5.1 Specifications 3.6 Encoder 3.6 Encoder 3.6.1 Features of Encoder 3.6.1 Features of Encoder 4
4 SOFTWARE DESCRIPTIONSOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
5
5 MERITS AND MERITS AND DEMERITSDEMERITS
6
6 RESULT AND RESULT AND IMPLEMENTATIONIMPLEMENTATION
7
7 FUTURE SCOPEFUTURE SCOPE
8
8 BBIIBBIILLOOGGRRAAPPHHYY
9
ABSTRACT ABSTRACT
Due to the increase in the
Due to the increase in the number of vehicles on the number of vehicles on the road, traffic problems areroad, traffic problems are bound to exist. This is due to the fact that the current transportation infrastructure and car bound to exist. This is due to the fact that the current transportation infrastructure and car park facility developed are unable to cope with the influx of vehicles on the road. To park facility developed are unable to cope with the influx of vehicles on the road. To
alleviate the aforementioned problems, the smart card p
alleviate the aforementioned problems, the smart card p arking system has beenarking system has been developed. With the implementation of the
developed. With the implementation of the parking system, patrons can easily locate andparking system, patrons can easily locate and secure a vacant parking space at any car park deemed convenient to them.
secure a vacant parking space at any car park deemed convenient to them. In this car parking system, there are two types which
In this car parking system, there are two types which it refers to, one is allocatingit refers to, one is allocating a slot for parking and another is a charging/ticketing system. The present design deals a slot for parking and another is a charging/ticketing system. The present design deals with a display board which shows a
with a display board which shows a vacancy slot for a car as well vacancy slot for a car as well as displaying bill of as displaying bill of parking a car has parked. Whenever a car is ready to move out of parking area the system parking a car has parked. Whenever a car is ready to move out of parking area the system
displays the charge/amount to be paid for the use of parking slot. displays the charge/amount to be paid for the use of parking slot.
This system is effectively in use in most of the European coun
This system is effectively in use in most of the European coun tries and many of tries and many of the American states. This design is mainly comprised of low manual
the American states. This design is mainly comprised of low manual operation as well asoperation as well as efficient equipment can be installed an
efficient equipment can be installed any of they of the commercial,industrial,apartments,instit
commercial,industrial,apartments,institutions/universities,etc.,Hence it is a utions/universities,etc.,Hence it is a low costlow cost apparatus as it mainly uses a microcontroller which is programmable, wh
apparatus as it mainly uses a microcontroller which is programmable, wh ich is easy toich is easy to install in any of the above
CHAPTER-I CHAPTER-I 1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Automated parking is a method of automatically parking and retrieving cars typically Automated parking is a method of automatically parking and retrieving cars typically using a method of allocating the slots to the cars. As the system removes the need for using a method of allocating the slots to the cars. As the system removes the need for driveways and ramps, the floor area and the volume of the parking station itself can be driveways and ramps, the floor area and the volume of the parking station itself can be more efficiently used.
more efficiently used.
Automated parking systems can be designed to fit above or below ground, allowing for Automated parking systems can be designed to fit above or below ground, allowing for flexible usage of land space; this means the footprint can be reduced to one-third of the flexible usage of land space; this means the footprint can be reduced to one-third of the land required by conventional car parking solutions. Cost effective on a number of fronts, land required by conventional car parking solutions. Cost effective on a number of fronts, automated parking also offers significantly improved service to the customer.
automated parking also offers significantly improved service to the customer.
Automated parking systems are about making the best use of available space above and Automated parking systems are about making the best use of available space above and below ground. With less environment impact and time impact, reduced opportunities for below ground. With less environment impact and time impact, reduced opportunities for theft and vandalism and real cost benefits, automatic parking is the new watchword in theft and vandalism and real cost benefits, automatic parking is the new watchword in urban planning.
urban planning.
There is an over
There is an overwhelmwhelming need for theing need for these systse systems becauems because of se of increaincreasing trasing trafficffic. These. These systems can be integrated with in consumer based electronic devices. The individual systems can be integrated with in consumer based electronic devices. The individual components are installed inside this structure for its operation.
1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM 1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM
FIGURE-I
FIGURE-I PROCESSING PROCESSING UNIT UNIT AND AND SENSORSSENSORS Microcon Microcon troller troller
ATMEGA
ATMEGA
32
32
Comp
Comp
arator
arator
motor motor interface interface and and LCD LCDComparator
Comparator
Sensor
Sensor
/array of
/array of
sensors
sensors
1.3 OUTLINE OF THE BLOCK DIAGRAM 1.3 OUTLINE OF THE BLOCK DIAGRAM
As per the block diagram in this automated car parking system, the processing unit which As per the block diagram in this automated car parking system, the processing unit which contains the microcontroller is interfaced with motor circuits and Liquid Crystal Display. contains the microcontroller is interfaced with motor circuits and Liquid Crystal Display. Through that the sensor block is connected so that it is used to sense the vehicle, in Through that the sensor block is connected so that it is used to sense the vehicle, in between them comparator block is connected so that conversion of code is being done. between them comparator block is connected so that conversion of code is being done.
To place a vehicle in particular rack based on the information provided by the LCD about To place a vehicle in particular rack based on the information provided by the LCD about the empty spaces, it will allot the place for that vehicle based on that information. Motor the empty spaces, it will allot the place for that vehicle based on that information. Motor is used to open and close the gate.
is used to open and close the gate. Final
Finally the vehiclly the vehicle is entered throe is entered through an ugh an entry gatentry gate and placed there and throe and placed there and through exitugh exit gate it returns.
gate it returns.
Through this system, ground space required is less and
CHAPTER-II CHAPTER-II
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
2.1 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION 2.1 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
The power supply unit consists of a transformer, rectifier and a regulator. The The power supply unit consists of a transformer, rectifier and a regulator. The transformer used is a step down transformer which converts the
transformer used is a step down transformer which converts the 230v AC to 12v AC. 230v AC to 12v AC. ThisThis 12v AC is fed to
12v AC is fed to the bridge rectifier as well as motor simultaneously. The bridge rectifier the bridge rectifier as well as motor simultaneously. The bridge rectifier converts the 12v AC to 12v DC. The fluctuations produced during this conversion are converts the 12v AC to 12v DC. The fluctuations produced during this conversion are reduced by the capacitor. This
reduced by the capacitor. This voltage is fed to the voltage voltage is fed to the voltage regulator.regulator.
The processing unit consists of micro controller. The microcontroller is the hea The processing unit consists of micro controller. The microcontroller is the hea rtrt of the circuit. The input to
of the circuit. The input to the micro controller is taken from the voltage the micro controller is taken from the voltage regulator whichregulator which gives an output of 5v
gives an output of 5v as only 5v is required for the microcontroller. The as only 5v is required for the microcontroller. The input commandinput command given to the micro controller should b
given to the micro controller should be in such a way that e in such a way that it should check for the emptyit should check for the empty slots and display that information on the LCD. Another important command to be given slots and display that information on the LCD. Another important command to be given is the open and c
is the open and close of gate according to the lose of gate according to the availability of slot.availability of slot.
The sensor circuit senses the availability of slots as well as near the gate. This is The sensor circuit senses the availability of slots as well as near the gate. This is how the circuit works.
how the circuit works.
FIGURE-III
2.2 WORKING DESCRIPTION 2.2 WORKING DESCRIPTION
There are two processes, the user has to undergo: There are two processes, the user has to undergo: 1. Entering 1. Entering 2. Leaving. 2. Leaving. 2.2.1 ENTERING: 2.2.1 ENTERING:
Whenever a vehicle comes to the parking zone for parking the LED at the entrance gate Whenever a vehicle comes to the parking zone for parking the LED at the entrance gate will gives the information about the vacancy i.e. if the LED is red, there are no vacant will gives the information about the vacancy i.e. if the LED is red, there are no vacant cells, if it is green there is a vacant cell for parking. If the LED is green, the user has to cells, if it is green there is a vacant cell for parking. If the LED is green, the user has to tale his feedbac
tale his feedback to k to the MC, then the MC the MC, then the MC moves the priorimoves the priority of the rack ty of the rack in which emptyin which empty cells are available depending on vehicle to the entry gate of the rack, the vehicle will cells are available depending on vehicle to the entry gate of the rack, the vehicle will moves to the respective slot. When the user is in front of the entry gate, the LCD displays moves to the respective slot. When the user is in front of the entry gate, the LCD displays “ENTER ‘1’for parking, ‘2’ for leaving.
“ENTER ‘1’for parking, ‘2’ for leaving.
The user has to enter his option through the keypad. If he enters ‘1’ the LCD displays the The user has to enter his option through the keypad. If he enters ‘1’ the LCD displays the vacant cells in that rack, then the entry gate will open and allows the user to park his vacant cells in that rack, then the entry gate will open and allows the user to park his vehicle in the specified cell. Whenever the user parks his vehicle in the correct cell the vehicle in the specified cell. Whenever the user parks his vehicle in the correct cell the sensor at the cell gives feedback to the Microcontroller that the vehicle has been parked. sensor at the cell gives feedback to the Microcontroller that the vehicle has been parked. With this the entering process is complete.
With this the entering process is complete. 2.2.2 LEAVING:
2.2.2 LEAVING:
Whenever the user comes to the rack to take his vehicle the LCD displays’’ enter ‘1’ for Whenever the user comes to the rack to take his vehicle the LCD displays’’ enter ‘1’ for parking, ‘2’ for leaving”. Whenever the user takes the car from a cell the sensor at the parking, ‘2’ for leaving”. Whenever the user takes the car from a cell the sensor at the
cell give feedback to the Microcontroller. cell give feedback to the Microcontroller.
If the sensor that responded is a correct one, the exit will gate will be open and it also If the sensor that responded is a correct one, the exit will gate will be open and it also brings the lift to the particular rack. If that is a wrong sensor then it will not respond. brings the lift to the particular rack. If that is a wrong sensor then it will not respond.
With this the leaving process is completed With this the leaving process is completed
CHAPTER-III CHAPTER-III
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION HARDWARE DESCRIPTION The block diagram of
The block diagram of the system the system consists of consists of :: 1.
1. TrTranansfsforormemer r 2
2.. RReeccttiiffiieer r 3
3.. RReegguullaattoor r 4
4.. CCoommppaarraattoor r 5
5.. TTrraannssiissttoor r 6.
6. PPhohotto reo ressisistotor r 7.
7. MiMicrcrococonontrtrololleler r 8
8.. LLCCD D ddiissppllayay 9.
9. MoMottor or DrDriivever r 10.
3.1 Transformer: 3.1 Transformer: Transf
Transformer is static equipment which transformormer is static equipment which transforms power s power from one from one circucircuit to it to anotheanother byr by stepping up or stepping down
stepping up or stepping down the primary voltage with out any change the primary voltage with out any change in the frequency.in the frequency.
A transformer is an energy device it has an
A transformer is an energy device it has an input side (primary) and an outputinput side (primary) and an output side (secondary).electrical energy applied to the primary is converted to
side (secondary).electrical energy applied to the primary is converted to a magnetic fielda magnetic field which in turn, induces a current in the secondary which carries energy to the load
which in turn, induces a current in the secondary which carries energy to the load connected to the load connected
connected to the load connected to the secondary. to the secondary. The alternating current The alternating current that flowsthat flows through the primary winding establishes a time –varying magnetic
through the primary winding establishes a time –varying magnetic flux, some of whichflux, some of which links to the secondary winding and
links to the secondary winding and induces a voltage across it. The induces a voltage across it. The magnetic of thismagnetic of this voltage is proportional to the number
voltage is proportional to the number of turns on the primary winding to the nuof turns on the primary winding to the number of mber of turns on the secondary winding this is known as “turn’s ratio”.
turns on the secondary winding this is known as “turn’s ratio”. The basic working principle of transformer is based on
The basic working principle of transformer is based on mutual inductionmutual induction between two coupled coils. According to this principle by changing flux creates on between two coupled coils. According to this principle by changing flux creates on
induced emf in turn equal
induced emf in turn equal to the derivative of the flux to the derivative of the flux so that the total induced emf acrossso that the total induced emf across ‘N’ turns is
‘N’ turns is
E=
E= N N d@/dt d@/dt :- :- (@=fi)(@=fi)
A transformer consists of at least two sets of windings wound on a single A transformer consists of at least two sets of windings wound on a single magnetic core. There are
magnetic core. There are two main purposes for using transformers. The first is to converttwo main purposes for using transformers. The first is to convert the energy on the primary side to a different voltage level on the secondary side. This is the energy on the primary side to a different voltage level on the secondary side. This is accomplished by using differing turn’s counts on primary and secon
accomplished by using differing turn’s counts on primary and secon dary windings. Thedary windings. The voltage ratio is the same as the turn’s ratio. The second purpose is to isolate the energy voltage ratio is the same as the turn’s ratio. The second purpose is to isolate the energy
source from the destination, either for personal safety, or to allow
source from the destination, either for personal safety, or to allow a voltage offseta voltage offset between the source and load.
between the source and load.
A step down transformer has less turns of wire on the secondary coil, which makes a A step down transformer has less turns of wire on the secondary coil, which makes a small
smaller induced er induced voltavoltage ge in the in the secondasecondary coil. ry coil. DecreaDecreasing the sing the voltavoltage ge does not does not decreadecreasese the power. As the voltage goes down, the current goes up. It is called a step down the power. As the voltage goes down, the current goes up. It is called a step down transformer because the voltage output is smaller than the voltage input. If the secondary transformer because the voltage output is smaller than the voltage input. If the secondary coil has half as many turns of wire then the output voltage will be half the input voltage. coil has half as many turns of wire then the output voltage will be half the input voltage.
3.2 Rectifier 3.2 Rectifier
Rectifier circuits are found in all dc power supp
Rectifier circuits are found in all dc power supplies that operate from an aclies that operate from an ac voltage source. They convert the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage. The most voltage source. They convert the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage. The most basic type of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier. Although half-wave rectifiers have basic type of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier. Although half-wave rectifiers have
some applications, the full-wave rectifiers are the most commonly used
some applications, the full-wave rectifiers are the most commonly used type in dc power type in dc power supplies. These are two types of full-wave rectifiers:
supplies. These are two types of full-wave rectifiers: (1) full-wave center-tapped rectifier
(2) full-wave bridge rectifier (2) full-wave bridge rectifier
Here in this particular design we are using
Here in this particular design we are using a bridge rectifier which is discussed asa bridge rectifier which is discussed as follows.
follows.
3.2.1 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier 3.2.1 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier
The full –wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes, a
The full –wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes, a s shown in below figure. Whens shown in below figure. When the input cycle is positive, diodes
the input cycle is positive, diodes DD11andandDD22are forward-biased and conduct currentare forward-biased and conduct current
through
through R R LL.. During this time, diodesDuring this time, diodesDD33andand DD44are reverse-biased.are reverse-biased.
R RLL V Vinin F F -+ + 00 V Voutout D D11 D D44 D D22 D D33
During positive half-cycles of the input,
During positive half-cycles of the input, DD11andandDD22are forward-biased and conductare forward-biased and conduct
current,
current, DD33andandDD44are reverse-biased.are reverse-biased.
When the input cycle is negative as shown in below figure
When the input cycle is negative as shown in below figure,,diodesdiodesDD33andandDD44areare
forward-biased and conduct current in the same direction through
forward-biased and conduct current in the same direction throughR R LLas during theas during the
positive half-cycle. During the negative half-cycle,
positive half-cycle. During the negative half-cycle,DD11andandDD22are reverse-biased. A full-are reverse-biased. A
full-wave rectifier output voltage appears across
R RLL V Vinin F F --+ + 00 V Voutout --+ + --+ + D D11 D D44 D D22 D D33
During negative half-cycles of the input,
During negative half-cycles of the input,DD33andand DD44are forward-biased and conductare forward-biased and conduct
current,
current, DD11andandDD22are reverse-biased.are reverse-biased.
The above two figures ex
The above two figures explain the full-wave Bridge Rectifier.plain the full-wave Bridge Rectifier. The output graph of a full-wave rectifier is as shown below: The output graph of a full-wave rectifier is as shown below:
Bridge rectifier Bridge rectifier
Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over the connections so the alternating directions of the connections so the alternating directions of AC are converted to the one direction of DC. AC are converted to the one direction of DC.
Output: full-wave varying DC Output: full-wave varying DC (using all the AC wave).
The diodes used in this rectifier are IN4007
The diodes used in this rectifier are IN4007 which is discussed below.which is discussed below. 3.2.2 IN4007 Diode
3.2.2 IN4007 Diode
These diodes are used to
These diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or fullused as half wave rectifier or full wave rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
wave rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode. 1.
1. MaxMaximuimum fom forwarward rd curcurrenrent cat capacipacityty 2.
2. MaxMaximuimum rm reveeverse rse volvoltagtage cae capacpacityity 3.
3. MaxMaximuimum fom forwarward rd volvoltagtage cae capacpacityity
The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market are as follows:
are as follows:
•
• Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 andDiodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and
IN4007 have maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum IN4007 have maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity of 1 Amp.
forward current capacity of 1 Amp.
•
• Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diodeDiode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode
of more capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low of more capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity can not be used in place of diode of high capacity.For example, in place capacity can not be used in place of diode of high capacity.For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or IN4002 can not be used of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or IN4002 can not be used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by company BEL is equivalent of in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.
3.3 Voltage Regulator 3.3 Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
AC or DC voltages.
With the exception of passive shunt regulators, all
With the exception of passive shunt regulators, all modern electronic voltage regulatorsmodern electronic voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to
Any difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element in such a control the regulation element in such a way as toway as to reduce the voltage error. This forms a negative feedback servo control loop; increasing reduce the voltage error. This forms a negative feedback servo control loop; increasing the open-loop gain tends to
the open-loop gain tends to increase regulation accuracy but reduce stability (avoidanceincrease regulation accuracy but reduce stability (avoidance of oscillation, or ringing during step changes).
of oscillation, or ringing during step changes). There will also be a trade-off betweenThere will also be a trade-off between stability and the speed of the response to
stability and the speed of the response to changes. If the output voltage is too changes. If the output voltage is too lowlow
(perhaps due to input voltage reducing or load current increasing), the regulation element (perhaps due to input voltage reducing or load current increasing), the regulation element is commanded, up to a point, to produce a higher output voltage - by dropping less of the is commanded, up to a point, to produce a higher output voltage - by dropping less of the
input voltage (for linear series regulators and buck
input voltage (for linear series regulators and buck switching regulators), or to draw inputswitching regulators), or to draw input current for longer periods (boost-type switching regulators); if the output voltage is too current for longer periods (boost-type switching regulators); if the output voltage is too high, the regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage. high, the regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage. However, many regulators have over-current protection,
However, many regulators have over-current protection, so entirely stop sourcing currentso entirely stop sourcing current (or limit the current in some way) if the output cu
(or limit the current in some way) if the output cu rrent is too high, and some regulatorsrrent is too high, and some regulators may also shut down if the input
may also shut down if the input voltage is outside a given range voltage is outside a given range (see also: crowbar (see also: crowbar circuits).
circuits).
The voltage Regulator used in this design is LM7805 LM 7812. The voltage Regulator used in this design is LM7805 LM 7812.
3.3.1 LM78xx Regulator 3.3.1 LM78xx Regulator
The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several fixedfixed output voltages making them useful in
output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One a wide range of applications. One of these is localof these is local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with
on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single pointsingle point regulation. The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems, regulation. The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems, instrumentation, Hi-Fi, and other solid state electronic equipment. Although
instrumentation, Hi-Fi, and other solid state electronic equipment. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators these devices can
designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators these devices can be used with externalbe used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages
components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents. The LM78XX series is availableand currents. The LM78XX series is available in an aluminum TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0A load current if adequate heat in an aluminum TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0A load current if adequate heat sinking is provided.
sinking is provided.
Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistor is provided to limit internal power d
protection for the output transistor is provided to limit internal power d issipation.issipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high for
If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking provided, the thermalthe heat sinking provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the
shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from overheating. Considerable effort wasIC from overheating. Considerable effort was expanded to make the LM78XX series of regulators easy to use and minimize the number expanded to make the LM78XX series of regulators easy to use and minimize the number of external components. It is not nec
of external components. It is not necessary to bypass the output, although this doesessary to bypass the output, although this does improve transient response. Input bypassing is needed only
improve transient response. Input bypassing is needed only if the regulator is located far if the regulator is located far from the filter capacitor of the power supply.
from the filter capacitor of the power supply.
For output voltage other than 5V, 12V and 15V the LM117 series provides an output For output voltage other than 5V, 12V and 15V the LM117 series provides an output voltage range from 1.2V to 57V.
Features Features
- Output current in excess of 1A - Output current in excess of 1A - Internal thermal overload protection - Internal thermal overload protection - No external components required - No external components required - Output transistor safe area protection - Output transistor safe area protection - Internal short circuit cu
- Internal short circuit current limitrrent limit
- Available in the aluminum TO-3 package - Available in the aluminum TO-3 package
Voltage Range Voltage Range LM7805C 5V LM7805C 5V LM7812C 12V LM7812C 12V LM7815C 15V LM7815C 15V 3.6
3.6 TraTransisnsistortor In electronics, a
In electronics, a transistortransistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or swi
switch tch eleelectrctronionic c sigsignalnals. s. A A tratransinsistostor r is is madmade e of of a a solsolid id piepiece ce of of a a semsemicoiconducnductor tor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or cur
currenrent t applapplied ied to to one one paipair r of of the the tratransinsistostor's r's terterminminals als chanchanges ges the the curcurrenrent t floflowinwingg through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is used The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is used in radio, telephone, computer and other electronic systems. The transistor is often cited as in radio, telephone, computer and other electronic systems. The transistor is often cited as being one of the greatest achievements in the 20th century. Some transistors are packaged being one of the greatest achievements in the 20th century. Some transistors are packaged
individually but most are found in integrated circuits. individually but most are found in integrated circuits. THE BASIC TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER
THE BASIC TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER In the preceding pages
In the preceding pages we explained the internal workings of the we explained the internal workings of the transistor andtransistor and
introduced new terms, such as emitter, base, and collector. Since you should be familiar introduced new terms, such as emitter, base, and collector. Since you should be familiar by now with all of the new terms mentioned earlier and with the internal operation of the by now with all of the new terms mentioned earlier and with the internal operation of the
transistor, we will move on to the basic
To understand the overall operation of the transistor amplifier, you must only consider To understand the overall operation of the transistor amplifier, you must only consider the current in and out
the current in and out of the transistor and through the various componenof the transistor and through the various componen ts in the circuit.ts in the circuit. Therefore, from this point on, only the
Therefore, from this point on, only the schematic symbol for the transistor will be used inschematic symbol for the transistor will be used in the illustrations, and rather than thinking about
the illustrations, and rather than thinking about majority and minority carriers, we willmajority and minority carriers, we will now start thinking in terms of emitter, base, and
now start thinking in terms of emitter, base, and collector current.collector current. Before going into the basic
Before going into the basic transistor amplifier, there are two terms you should betransistor amplifier, there are two terms you should be familiar with: AMPLIFICATION and AMPLIFIER. Amplification is the process familiar with: AMPLIFICATION and AMPLIFIER. Amplification is the process of of increasing the strength of a SIGNAL. A signal is just a
increasing the strength of a SIGNAL. A signal is just a general term used to refer to anygeneral term used to refer to any particular current, voltage, or power in a
particular current, voltage, or power in a circuit. An amplifier is the device that providescircuit. An amplifier is the device that provides amplification (the increase in current, voltage, or p
amplification (the increase in current, voltage, or power of a signal) without appreciablyower of a signal) without appreciably altering the original signal.
altering the original signal.
Transistors are frequently used as
Transistors are frequently used as amplifiers. Some transistor circuits are CURRENTamplifiers. Some transistor circuits are CURRENT amplifiers, with a small load resistance; other circuits are designed for VOLTAGE amplifiers, with a small load resistance; other circuits are designed for VOLTAGE amplification and have a high load resistance; others amplify POWER.
amplification and have a high load resistance; others amplify POWER. Now take a look
Now take a look at the NPN version of the basic transistor amplifier in figure 2-12 andat the NPN version of the basic transistor amplifier in figure 2-12 and let's see just how it works.
let's see just how it works.
So far in this discussion, a separate battery has been
So far in this discussion, a separate battery has been used to provide the necessaryused to provide the necessary forward-bias voltage. Although a separate battery has been
forward-bias voltage. Although a separate battery has been used in the past for used in the past for convenience, it is not p
convenience, it is not practical to use a battery for emitter-base bias. For instance, itractical to use a battery for emitter-base bias. For instance, it would take a battery slightly over .2
would take a battery slightly over .2 volts to properly forward bias a germaniumvolts to properly forward bias a germanium
transistor, while a similar silicon transistor would require a voltage slightly over .6 volts. transistor, while a similar silicon transistor would require a voltage slightly over .6 volts. However, common batteries do not have such voltage values. Also, since bias voltages However, common batteries do not have such voltage values. Also, since bias voltages are quite critical and must be
are quite critical and must be held within a few tenths of one held within a few tenths of one volt, it is easier to work withvolt, it is easier to work with bias currents flowing through resistors of high ohmic values than
bias currents flowing through resistors of high ohmic values than with batteries.with batteries. By inserting one or more resistors in a circuit, different methods of b
By inserting one or more resistors in a circuit, different methods of b iasing may beiasing may be achieved and the emitter-base battery eliminated. In addition to eliminating the battery, achieved and the emitter-base battery eliminated. In addition to eliminating the battery, some of these biasing methods compensate
some of these biasing methods compensate for slight variations in transistor for slight variations in transistor characteristics and changes in transistor conduction resulting from temperature characteristics and changes in transistor conduction resulting from temperature irregularities. Notice in figure 2-12 that the emitter-base battery has been e
irregularities. Notice in figure 2-12 that the emitter-base battery has been e liminated andliminated and the bias resistor R
the bias resistor R BBhas been inserted between the collector and the base. Resistor R has been inserted between the collector and the base. Resistor R BB
provides the necessary forward bias for the emitter-base junction. Current flows in the provides the necessary forward bias for the emitter-base junction. Current flows in the emitter-base bias circuit from ground to the emitter, out the base lead, and through R emitter-base bias circuit from ground to the emitter, out the base lead, and through R BBtoto
V
VCCCC. Since the current in the . Since the current in the base circuit is very small (a few hundred microamperes) andbase circuit is very small (a few hundred microamperes) and
the forward resistance of the transistor is low, only a few tenths o
the forward resistance of the transistor is low, only a few tenths o f a volt of positive biasf a volt of positive bias will be felt on the base
will be felt on the base of the transistor. However, this is enough voltage oof the transistor. However, this is enough voltage o n the base,n the base, along with ground on the emitter and the large positive voltage on the collector, to along with ground on the emitter and the large positive voltage on the collector, to properly bias the transistor.
properly bias the transistor.
AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION
In the previous discussions, we assumed that for ev
In the previous discussions, we assumed that for ev ery portion of the input signal thereery portion of the input signal there was an output from the amplifier. This is not always the case with amplifiers. It may be was an output from the amplifier. This is not always the case with amplifiers. It may be desirable to have the transistor conducting
desirable to have the transistor conducting for only a portion of the input signal. Thefor only a portion of the input signal. The portion of the input for which there
portion of the input for which there is an output determines the class of operation is an output determines the class of operation of theof the amplifier. There are four classes of amplifier operations. They are class A, class AB, amplifier. There are four classes of amplifier operations. They are class A, class AB, class B, and class C.
class B, and class C.
Class A Amplifier Operation Class A Amplifier Operation
Class A amplifiers are biased so that variations in input signal
Class A amplifiers are biased so that variations in input signal polarities occur within thepolarities occur within the limits of CUTOFF and SATURATION. In a PNP transistor, for example, if the base limits of CUTOFF and SATURATION. In a PNP transistor, for example, if the base becomes positive with respect to the emitter, holes
becomes positive with respect to the emitter, holes will be repelled at the PN junction andwill be repelled at the PN junction and no current can flow in the collector circuit. This condition is known as cutoff. Saturation no current can flow in the collector circuit. This condition is known as cutoff. Saturation occurs when the base becomes so negative with respect to the emitter that changes in the occurs when the base becomes so negative with respect to the emitter that changes in the signal are not reflected in collector-current flow.
signal are not reflected in collector-current flow. Biasing an amplifier in this manner places the
Biasing an amplifier in this manner places the dc operating point between dc operating point between cutoff andcutoff and saturation and allows collector current to flow during the
saturation and allows collector current to flow during the complete cycle (360 degrees) of complete cycle (360 degrees) of the input signal, thus providing an
the input signal, thus providing an output which is a replica of output which is a replica of the input. Figure 2-12 is anthe input. Figure 2-12 is an example of a class A
example of a class A amplifier. Although the output from this amplifier is 180 degreesamplifier. Although the output from this amplifier is 180 degrees out of phase with the input, the output current still flows for the complete duration of the out of phase with the input, the output current still flows for the complete duration of the input.
input.
The class A operated amplifier is used
The class A operated amplifier is used as an audio- and radio-frequency amplifier inas an audio- and radio-frequency amplifier in radio, radar, and sound systems, just to mention a
radio, radar, and sound systems, just to mention a few examples.few examples. For a comparison of output s
For a comparison of output signals for the diffignals for the different amplifier classes erent amplifier classes of operation, of operation, duringduring the following discussion.
the following discussion.
The transistor used in this design is BC548 which is discussed as follows. The transistor used in this design is BC548 which is discussed as follows.
3
3..66..11 BBC C 554488
BC546/547/548/549/550 is a NPN epitaxial silicon transistor. It used for bo
BC546/547/548/549/550 is a NPN epitaxial silicon transistor. It used for bo th switchingth switching and amplification. The exact specs of a given device depend on the manufacturer. It is and amplification. The exact specs of a given device depend on the manufacturer. It is important to check the datasheet for the exact device and brand you are dealing with. important to check the datasheet for the exact device and brand you are dealing with. Philips and Telefunken are two manufacturers of the BC548.
Philips and Telefunken are two manufacturers of the BC548. Vcbo = 30 Volts, Ic = 100mA, Ptotal = 50mW and ft = 300MHz. Vcbo = 30 Volts, Ic = 100mA, Ptotal = 50mW and ft = 300MHz.
3.7
3.7 SmaSmall signll signal Diodal Diodee
Applications Applications High-speed High-speed Features Features
1) Glass sealed envelope. (GSD) 1) Glass sealed envelope. (GSD) 2) High speed. 2) High speed. 3) High reliability. 3) High reliability. Construction Construction
Silicon epitaxial planar Silicon epitaxial planar
3.
3. TSTSOPOP1731738 - Inf8 - Infrarrared Reed Receiceiveverr Introduction
Introduction
TSOP1738 is an Infrared (IR) receiver which is widely used in
TSOP1738 is an Infrared (IR) receiver which is widely used in large number of electroniclarge number of electronic products for receiving and demodulating
products for receiving and demodulating infrared signals. The received demodulatedinfrared signals. The received demodulated signals can be easily decoded
signals can be easily decoded by a microcontroller. It supports RC5, RC6 code, by a microcontroller. It supports RC5, RC6 code, SonySony format (SIRCS), NEC code, Sharp code, etc.
Specifications Specifications
•
• Continuous data transmission possible (up to 2400 bps)Continuous data transmission possible (up to 2400 bps) •
• High immunity against ambient lightHigh immunity against ambient light •
• Photo detector and preamplifier in one packagePhoto detector and preamplifier in one package •
• Improved shielding against electrical field disturbanceImproved shielding against electrical field disturbance •
• TTL and CMOS compatibilityTTL and CMOS compatibility •
• Active low outputActive low output •
• Low power consumptionLow power consumption •
• Internal filter for PCM freqInternal filter for PCM freq
The datasheet for TSOP1738 is as shown below; The datasheet for TSOP1738 is as shown below; **DATASHEET**
3.1 MICROCONTROLLER(AT89C52) 3.1 MICROCONTROLLER(AT89C52)
PIN
PIN DIAGRAM DIAGRAM OF OF MICROCINTROLLER(AT89C52)MICROCINTROLLER(AT89C52)
3.1.2 AT89s52 ARCHITECTURE: 3.1.2 AT89s52 ARCHITECTURE: The AT89C52 provides the
The AT89C52 provides the following standard features: 8Kbytes of Flash, 256 bytes of following standard features: 8Kbytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, three 16-bittimer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt
RAM, 32 I/O lines, three 16-bittimer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full-duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and
architecture, a full-duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry.clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C52 is
In addition, the AT89C52 is designed with static logic for operation down to designed with static logic for operation down to zerozero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and
stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt systeminterrupt system to continue functioning.
The Power-down mode saves the
The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling allRAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next
other chip functions until the next hardware reset.hardware reset.
Pin Description Pin Description VCC VCC Supply voltage. Supply voltage. GND GND Ground. Ground. Port 0 Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s a
eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can re written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as highbe used as high impedance inputs.
impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be co
Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low nfigured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus duringorder address/data bus during accesses to external program and
accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull ups.ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming
Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code
and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull ups are requiredbytes during program verification. External pull ups are required during program verification.
during program verification.
Port 1 Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups.
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 1 output buffersThe Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and
by the internal pull ups and can be used as can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that areinputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because
externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull ups.of the internal pull ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX
Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.
verification.
Port 2 Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups .
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups . The Port 2 output buffersThe Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and
by the internal pull ups and can be used as can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that areinputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because
externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull ups.of the internal pull ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches
Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to
from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-external data memory that use 16- bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups
when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data
memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register.
Special Function Register.
Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and
Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flashsome control signals during Flash programming and verification.
programming and verification.
Port 3 Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output buffers Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,
by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled
Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of thelow will source current (IIL) because of the pullups.
pullups.
Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.
RST RST
Reset input. A high on
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is runningthis pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device.
ALE/PROG ALE/PROG
Address Latch Enable is an o
Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of utput pulse for latching the low byte of the address duringthe address during accesses to external memory.
accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse
This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at
In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency andoscillator frequency and may be used for external
may be used for external
Port Pin Alternate Functions Port Pin Alternate Functions P1.0 T2 (external count input
P1.0 T2 (external count input to Timer/Counter 2), clock-outto Timer/Counter 2), clock-out
P1.1 T2EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and direction control) P1.1 T2EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and direction control)
Port Pin Alternate Functions Port Pin Alternate Functions P3.0 RXD (serial input port) P3.0 RXD (serial input port) P3.1 TXD (serial output port) P3.1 TXD (serial output port) P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0) P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0) P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1) P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1) P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input) P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input) P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input) P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)
P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe) P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe) P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe) P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)
timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired,
access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during
of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly
a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting thepulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in
ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.external execution mode.
PSEN PSEN
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to e
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory.xternal program memory.
When the AT89C52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated When the AT89C52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.
access to external data memory.
EA/VPP EA/VPP External
External Access Enable. EA must be Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order tstrapped to GND in order to enable the device too enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.
internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions..This pin also receives theVCC for internal program executions..This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming when
12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming when 12-volt12-volt programming is selected.
programming is selected.
XTAL1 XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.the internal clock operating circuit.
XTAL2 XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.. Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier..
3.1.3 ATMEGA32
3.1.3 ATMEGA32 MICROCONTROLLER MICROCONTROLLER AT89C52 AT89C52 FEATURES:FEATURES:
- HIGH RELIABILITY FOR LOW COST - HIGH RELIABILITY FOR LOW COST
- LOW PROFILE - 3.2 MM MAX. PACKAGE HEIGHT - LOW PROFILE - 3.2 MM MAX. PACKAGE HEIGHT
- EXTENDED TEMPERATURE RANGE TO -40/+125°C - EXTENDED TEMPERATURE RANGE TO -40/+125°C
- TUNABLE WITH EXTERNAL CAPACITY - TUNABLE WITH EXTERNAL CAPACITY
- CHEAPEST AVAILABLE SMD-CRYSTAL - CHEAPEST AVAILABLE SMD-CRYSTAL 3.2 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (JHD162A) 3.2 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (JHD162A)
The alphanumeric 16 character * 2 line LCD requires 8 data lines and 3 control signals. The alphanumeric 16 character * 2 line LCD requires 8 data lines and 3 control signals. To interface the LCD, to the microcontroller it require an 8 bit and also three control To interface the LCD, to the microcontroller it require an 8 bit and also three control si
signgnalals s didiffffererenentitiatate e ththe e dadata ta frfrom om ththe e cocontntrorol l wowordrds s sesend nd to to ththe e LCLCD. D. ThThee Microcontroller has to send the necessary control words followed by the data to be Microcontroller has to send the necessary control words followed by the data to be displayed. The data lines from microcontroller are from PORT B and 3 control signals displayed. The data lines from microcontroller are from PORT B and 3 control signals are from PORT D as pins PD4, PD5 and PD6,
are from PORT D as pins PD4, PD5 and PD6,
Depending on the operation to be performed the control words are selected and passes to Depending on the operation to be performed the control words are selected and passes to the LCD. The data to be displayed on the LCD is to be sent in the ASCII format. Thus all the LCD. The data to be displayed on the LCD is to be sent in the ASCII format. Thus all the character to be displayed are converted into ASCII form and then sent to the LCD the character to be displayed are converted into ASCII form and then sent to the LCD along with different control words. The remaining can be used for some other purpose along with different control words. The remaining can be used for some other purpose .There are two major types of LCD s which are:
.There are two major types of LCD s which are:
1.
1. DyDynanamimic-sc-scacattttererining g LCLCD’D’ss 2.
2. FiFieleld-d-efeffefect ct LCLCD’D’s.s.
Field-effect LCD ‘S are normally used in such applications where source of energy is a Field-effect LCD ‘S are normally used in such applications where source of energy is a prime factor and height limited to 2 inches. The response time of LCD s is in the range of prime factor and height limited to 2 inches. The response time of LCD s is in the range of
100 to 300 Ms. Life
PIN DIAGRAM OF LCD PIN DIAGRAM OF LCD 3.2.1 PIN CONFIGURATIONS: 3.2.1 PIN CONFIGURATIONS: 3.3 DC MOTORS 3.3 DC MOTORS
We generally prefer permanent magnet motors as the angle of rotation is required to We generally prefer permanent magnet motors as the angle of rotation is required to rotate. rotate. 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 110 0 111 1 112 2 113 3 114 4 115 5 1166 VS VS S S VC VC C C VE VE E E RS R/ RS R/ W W E E DBDB 0 0 DB DB 1 1 DB DB 2 2 DB DB 3 3 DB DB 4 4 DB DB 5 5 DB DB 6 6 DB DB 7 7 LE LE D+ D+ LE LE
D-3.3.1 PERMANENT MAGNET MOTORS: 3.3.1 PERMANENT MAGNET MOTORS:
Often referred to as a “tin can” or “can stack” motor the permanent magnet step motor is Often referred to as a “tin can” or “can stack” motor the permanent magnet step motor is a lo
a low cow cost ast and lnd low row resesololututioion tyn type mpe mototor wor witith tyh typipicacal stl step aep angngleles of s of 7.57.5 to to 1515 . . (4(48 – 8 – 24
24 steps
steps/revol/revolutionution) ) PM motors as PM motors as the name the name implimplies have ies have permanpermanent magnets added ent magnets added to theto the motor structure. The rotor no longer has teeth as with the VR motor. Instead the rotor is motor structure. The rotor no longer has teeth as with the VR motor. Instead the rotor is magnetized with alternating north and south poles situated in a straight line parallel to the magnetized with alternating north and south poles situated in a straight line parallel to the rotor shaft.
rotor shaft.
These magnetized rotor poles provide an increased magnetic flux intensity and because of These magnetized rotor poles provide an increased magnetic flux intensity and because of this the PM motor exhibits improved torque characteristics when compared with the VR this the PM motor exhibits improved torque characteristics when compared with the VR type
type
FIGURE-V
FIGURE-V PERMANENT PERMANENT MAGNET MAGNET MOTOR MOTOR 3.4 MotordriverL293d
This schematic shows the use of L293D to drive a pair of DC motors/Geared Motors. The
This schematic shows the use of L293D to drive a pair of DC motors/Geared Motors. The
motor supply voltage can go up to 24Volts safely. But remember that the IC supports a
motor supply voltage can go up to 24Volts safely. But remember that the IC supports a
maximum of only 600mA current/channel; which is more than enough to drive small DC
maximum of only 600mA current/channel; which is more than enough to drive small DC
g
geeaarreedd mmoottoorrss..
Remember to add 0.22uF capacitors across both the motors to reduce the effect of noise
Remember to add 0.22uF capacitors across both the motors to reduce the effect of noise
on the circuitry. It is also recommended to
on the circuitry. It is also recommended to add 100uF capacitor between add 100uF capacitor between the motor supplythe motor supply
pin and the Gnd. Connections M1-A and M2-B correspond to Motor 1 while connections
pin and the Gnd. Connections M1-A and M2-B correspond to Motor 1 while connections
M2-A and M2-B correspond to Motor 2. You can connect these control inputs to any
M2-A and M2-B correspond to Motor 2. You can connect these control inputs to any
logic circuitry or a microcontroller of you choice.
logic circuitry or a microcontroller of you choice.
3.5 LOW POWER QUAD OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 3.5 LOW POWER QUAD OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS LM324
DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION
These circuits consist of four independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated These circuits consist of four independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated operational amplifiers. They operate from a single power supply ov
operational amplifiers. They operate from a single power supply ov er a wide range of er a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the
voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the low power supplylow power supply current drain is independent of the
current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage.magnitude of the power supply voltage. Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks
Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all the conventionaland all the conventional op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply
op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems.
systems.
For example, the LM124 series can
For example, the LM124 series can be directly operated off of the standard be directly operated off of the standard a5V power a5V power supply voltage which is used in d
supply voltage which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the requiredigital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics without requiring the additional g15V po
interface electronics without requiring the additional g15V po wer supplies.wer supplies. 3.6 Photo resistor
3.6 Photo resistor
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR(LDR) LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR(LDR)
A
Aphoto resistorphoto resistor or or light dependent resistorlight dependent resistor or or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cellcadmium sulfide (CdS) cell isis
a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referenced as a
be referenced as aphotoconductorphotoconductor..
A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free
electron (and its hole partner) conduct
electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.electricity, thereby lowering resistance. A photoelectric device can
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor hasbe either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not a
its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsicn efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap. Extrinsic devices have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called do pants, and added whose ground state energy is closer to have impurities, also called do pants, and added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a
sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced
sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), thereby phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic
will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.
semiconductor.
Applications Applications
Photo resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can Photo resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can bebe found in many consumer items such
found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock as camera light meters, street lights, clock radios, alarms, and outdoor clocks.
radios, alarms, and outdoor clocks. They are also used in some
They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescentdynamic compressors together with a small incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction.
lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction. Lead sulfide and indium antimonite LDRs
Lead sulfide and indium antimonite LDRs are used for the mid infrared spectralare used for the mid infrared spectral
region. Ge: Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors available, and region. Ge: Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
CHAPTER-V CHAPTER-V
MERITS AND DEMERITS MERITS AND DEMERITS MERITS
MERITS
•
• Reduced ground space requirement as compared to conventional parking systems.Reduced ground space requirement as compared to conventional parking systems.
•
• Low parking and retrieval times -- 2 to 5 minutes per car depending on theLow parking and retrieval times -- 2 to 5 minutes per car depending on the
configuration . configuration .
•
• Reduced noise levels in such systems, when compared to conventional parkingReduced noise levels in such systems, when compared to conventional parking
system. system.
•
•
• Safe operation; safety devices conforming to the EU standards used.Safe operation; safety devices conforming to the EU standards used. •
• Reduced chances of fire hazard and no risk to human lives.Reduced chances of fire hazard and no risk to human lives. •
• Time taken for a car to Time taken for a car to be parked is less compared to be parked is less compared to the conventional system.the conventional system.
•
• The The wholwhole e strstructucture ure can can be be cuscustomtomizeized d as as per per cuscustomtomersers’ ’ reqrequiruiremeements nts andand
li
limimitatatitionons. s. ThThesese e sysyststemems s cacan n be be buibuilt lt fofor r mamaxiximimizizing ng spspacace e and and volvolumumee utilization.
utilization. DEMERITS DEMERITS
•
• However, the disadvantage is the cost of the mechanical equipment within theHowever, the disadvantage is the cost of the mechanical equipment within the
area that is needed to
area that is needed to transport cars to the parking spaces.transport cars to the parking spaces.
•
• At peak periods when a wait may be involved before entering or leaving. The waitAt peak periods when a wait may be involved before entering or leaving. The wait
is caused by loading passengers and luggage at the entrance and exit locations of is caused by loading passengers and luggage at the entrance and exit locations of the car park rather than at the parked stall. This loading blocks the entrance or exit the car park rather than at the parked stall. This loading blocks the entrance or exit from being available to others. However the retrieval of vehicles can be faster in from being available to others. However the retrieval of vehicles can be faster in an automatic car park depending on the layout and number of exits.
an automatic car park depending on the layout and number of exits.
CHAPTER-VI CHAPTER-VI
RESULTS AND IMPLEMENTATION RESULTS AND IMPLEMENTATION RESULTS
RESULTS
•
• The compact parking system has been successfully designed for automating theThe compact parking system has been successfully designed for automating the
pa
parkirking ng sysystestem m in in hughuge e comcompleplexesxes, , TraTrade de centcentersers, , MulMultiptiplexlexes es etcetc, , and and thethe problems due to non availability of adequate space for parking of four wheelers is problems due to non availability of adequate space for parking of four wheelers is
solved out. solved out.
•
• EnEnsusureres s hihigh gh sesecurcuritity y in in cocontntrarast st to to conconveventntioional nal paparkrkining g sysyststemem, , if if ananyy
disturbances occurs to the normal operation buzzer provided sounds and also as disturbances occurs to the normal operation buzzer provided sounds and also as
