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SHEFFIELD S I *1WB [ ^ 5 100 818 501 9 TELEPEN

III

m i

Sheffield City Polytechnic Library

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ProQuest Number: 10697149

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A T h e s i s E n t i t l e d

" I m m u n o a s s a y s b y F l o w I n j e c t i o n A n a l y s i s " by

A rwel H u g h e s B.Sc.

A t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e C o uncil -for N a t i o n a l a n d A c a d e m i c A w a r d s (C.N.A.A.) in p a r t i a l -fulfilment for t h e d e g r e e of D o c t o r of P h i l o s o p h y .

A pril, 1986.

S p o n s o r i n g E s t a b l i s h m e n t : S h e f f i e l d C i t y P o l y t e c h n i c C o l l a b o r a t i n g E s t a b l i s h m e n t : H o m e O f f i c e F o r e n s i c S c i e n c e

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IG -oTS

<o

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D e c l a r a t i o n

I d e c l a r e th a t t h e r e s e a r c h p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n is o r i g i n a l wo r k c a r r i e d out fay the a u t h o r and h a s not been s u b m i t t e d -for a n y o t h e r degree.

Si qned Da t e

A. H u g h e s (Author)

D.J. M o w t h o r p e (Supervisor)

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A c k n o w l e d q e m e n t s

I w o u l d like t o t h a n k Dr. P.J. W o r s f o l d an d Dr. D.J. M o w t h o r p e for their a d v i c e and c o n s t a n t e n c o u r a g e m e n t d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of t h i s project.

M y t h a n k s a l s o to m y f e l l o w r e s e a r c h s t u d e n t s and s t a f f at t h e C h e m i s t r y D e p a r t m e n t for t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p , help and advice.

I am grateful t o t h e t e c h n i c a l st a f f at t h e C h e m i s t r y D e p a r t m e n t , e s p e c i a l l y Mr. A. S m i t h and Mr. A.G. Cox for their a b l e ass i s t a n c e .

W o r d s c a n n o t e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e for t h e t e c h n i c a l b r i l l i a n c e of Mr. B. D i d s b u r y ( P o l y t e c h n i c W o r k s h o p ) w h o m a c h i n e d t h e n u m e r o u s r o t a r y P T F E i n j e c t i o n v a l v e s and T pieces.

I am a l s o v e r y g r a teful to Mr. J. L e v e r t o n ( D o n caster Royal Infirmary) for t h e s u p p l y of s e r u m s a m p l e s and to Mr P. D a v i e s (Blood T r a n s f u s i o n S e r v i c e , S h e f f i e l d ) for t h e e n d l e s s s u p p l y of red cell s a m p l e s and a p p r o p r i a t e sera.

I w o u l d e s p e c i a l l y l i k e to t h a n k m y wife, A l i s o n , for her e n c o u r a g e m e n t , p a t i e n c e and u n d e r s t a n d i n g d u r i n g t h e last t h r e e years.

My t h a n k s also to m y p a r e n t s and b r o t h e r s fo r t h e i r c o n s t a n t e n c o u r a g e m e n t .

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R e s e a r c h S t u d y P r o g r a m m e

As p a r t of t h e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m m e t h e a u t h o r ha s a t t e n d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g l e c t u r e c o u r s e s of t h e M.Sc. I n s t r u m e n t a l Che m i c a l A n a l y s i s at S h e f f i e l d C i t y Polytec h n i c .

C o n t i n u o u s F l o w A n a l y s i s M a s s S p e c t r o m e t r y

S e p a r a t i o n T e c h n i q u e s M i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s

A n a l y t i c a l A p p r o a c h

The au t h o r ha s a t t e n d e d a l e c t u r e c o u r s e e n t i t l e d B . A . S.I.C. for t h e M a i n f r a m e , o f f e r e d b y c o m p u t e r S e r v i c e s at S h e f f i e l d C i t y P o l y t e c h n i c .

T h e au t h o r has p r e s e n t e d r e s e a r c h c o l l o q u i a on t h i s work at t h e s p o n s o r i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t (1984,1985) and a l s o at t h e R.S.C. A n a l y t i c a l Division, R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t M e e t i n g s ( L o u g h b o r o u g h 1983, M a n c h e s t e r 1984).

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Immunoassays by F low Injection Analysis — Arwel Hughes A b s t r a c t

A h o m e — b u i l t f l o w i n j e c t i o n a n a l y s i s (FIA) s y s t e m w a s f u l l y a u t o m a t e d u s i n g an A p p l e lie m i c r o c o m p u t e r , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y u s e d a s a v e r s a t i l e s y s t e m fo r t h e s t u d y of i m m u n o a s s a y p r o c e d u r e s . T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e a u t o m a t e d s y s t e m w a s m o n i t o r e d b y u s i n g t h e t u r b i d i m e t r i c d e t e c t i o n of b a r i u m s u l p h a t e as a model.

A model i m m u n o a s s a y b e t w e e n c o n c a n a v a l i n A (antibody) and y e a s t m a n n a n (antigen) w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d u s i n g t h e c o m p u t e r c o n t r o l l e d F I A system. T h e a u t o m a t e d i n j e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e g a v e a c c e p t a b l e p r e c i s i o n X R S D < 6 fo r a t u r b i d i m e t r i c m e t h o d and t h e s t o p — f l o w m e r g i n g z o n e s t e c h n i q u e u s e d g a v e an a c c e p t a b l e s a m p l e t h r o u g h p u t (40 s a m p l e s hour— M w i t h mi n i m a l c o n s u m p t i o n of b o t h s a m p l e and r e a g e n t (30 ul pe r a n a l y s i s ) .

An i m m u n o l o g i c a l r e a c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s e r u m i m m u n o g l o b u l i n G (IgG) a n d g o a t a n t i — h u m a n IgG w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d u s i n g a s i m i l a r s y s t e m t o t h e above. T u r b i d i m e t r i c d e t e c t i o n at 3 4 0 , n m w a s u s e d t o m o n i t o r t h e r a t e of r e a c t i o n . A s a m p l i n g r a t e of 4 0 s a m p l e s h o u r -1 and a p r e c i s i o n of 2 . 0 — 6 . 8 y£RSD w a s o b t a i n e d f o r a r a n g e of h u m a n s t a n d a r d s . S e r u m s a m p l e s a n d a h u m a n r e f e r e n c e s e r u m w e r e a n a l y s e d and t h e i r IgG c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t e r p o l a t e d f r o m t h e c a l i b r a t i o n data. S a t i s f a c t o r y c o r r e l a t i o n (r=0.9881) w a s o b s e r v e d w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g t e c h n i q u e of r adial i m m u n o d i f f u s i o n , as u s e d at D o n c a s t e r Royal I n f i r m a r y , o v e r t h e r a n g e 0 — 2 8 4 4 mg d l — 1 IgG.

E f f o r t s t o i n c r e a s e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e m e t h o d f o r IgG d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w e r e b a s e d on e n z y m e i m m u n o a s s a y p r o c e d u r e s , u s i n g u r e a s e a s t h e e n z y m e label on t h e a n t i b o d y . A h o m o g e n e o u s E M I T t y p e a s s a y for IgG w a s s t u d i e d u s i n g t h e c o m p u t e r c o n t r o l l e d F I A sys t e m . H o w e v e r t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e in s e n s i t i v i t y w a s n o t a c h ieved. A p s e u d o h e t e r o g e n e o u s E L I S A t y p e a s s a y fo r IgG w a s a l s o s t u d i e d , a m e t h o d w h i c h a l l o w e d f o r f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n in c o n s u m p t i o n of e x p e n s i v e r e a g e n t s b y i m m o b i l i s i n g t h e e n z y m e c o n j u g a t e on c o n t r o l l e d p o r e g l a s s or p o l y s t y r e n e . T h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t bo t h E M I T and E L I S A t y p e a s s a y s a r e p o s s i b l e u s i n g FIA, h o w e v e r on t h i s o c c a s i o n p r o b l e m s of s e n s i t i v i t y d i d no t a l l o w for d e t e r m i n a t i o n s u s i n g real s a mples.

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CONTENTS

P a g e

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N 1

1.1 I m m u n o a s s a y s 2

1.1.1 N o n — l a b e l l e d I m m u n o a s s a y s 8 1 .1.2 L a b e l l e d I m m u n o a s s a y s 11 1.2 F l o w I n j e c t i o n A n a l y s i s 18 1.3 A i m s and O b j e c t i v e s 29

1.4 Re-ferences 3 0

2. D E V E L O P M E N T O F A F U L L Y A U T O M A T E D F L O W I N J E C T I O N 3 3 A N A L Y S I S (FIA) S Y S T E M

2-1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 3 3

2 . 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l 33

3- D E V E L O P M E N T O F A T U R B I D I M E T R I C I M M U N O A S S A Y 4 5 P R O C E D U R E U S I N G F L O W I N J E C T I O N A N A L Y S I S

3.1 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of S u l p h a t e 3. 1 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

3 . 1 . 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l

3 - 1 - 3 C o n t i n u o u s - F l o w F I A 3 . 1 . 4 C o n c l u s i o n s

4 5 4 5 4 6 47

A Model I m m u n o p r e c i p i t i n R e a c t i o n 3 .2.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

3 . 2 . 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l

3 . 2 . 3 S t a t i c E x p e r i m e n t s

3 - 2 - 4 S t o p — F l o w M e r g i n g Zones FI A 3 . 2 . 5 S t o p - F l o w S i n g l e Channel F I A 3 . 2 . 6 C o n c l u s i o n s

5 4 54 55 5 6 60 6 5 69 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of H u m a n S e r u m I m m u n o g l o b u l i n G

3. 1

3. 4 3 . 5 3. 6

I n t r o d u c t i o n Experi mental

S t a t i c E x p e r i m e n t s

S t o p — F l o w M e r g i n g Zones F I A Q u a n t i t a t i o n of S e r u m S a m p l e s C o n c l u s i o n s

71 71 7 8 79 81 9 0 9 8

3 - 4 C o n c l u s i o n s 9 9

4. D E V E L O P M E N T O F E N Z Y M E I M M U N O A S S A Y P R O C E D U R E S U S I N G F L O W I N J E C T I O N A N A L Y S I S

io :

4.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

4-1-1 EMIT: B a s i c P r i n c i p l e s 4 . 1 . 2 ELISA: Basic P r i n c i p l e s

4 . 1 . 3 C o n j u g a t i o n of E n z y m e s to A n t i b o d i e s

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4 . 1 . 4 A u t o m a t i o n of E n z y m e I m m u n o a s s a y s 113 4 . 1 . 5 O b j e c t i v e s of A u t o m a t i o n of E n z y m e 115

I m m u n o a s s a y s

4 . 2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of U r e a s e A c t i v i t y 117 4 . 2 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 117 4 . 2 . 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l 118 4 . 2 . 3 C o n t i n u o u s — F l o w F I A 118

4 . 2 . 4 C o n c l u s i o n s 120

4 - 3 E M I T P r o c e d u r e s U s i n g F I A 123 4. 3 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 123 4 - 3 . 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l 125 4 . 3 . 3 S t a t i c E x p e r i m e n t s 126 4 . 3 . 4 S t o p — F l o w M e r g i n g Z o n e s F I A 131

4 . 3 . 5 C o n c l u s i o n s 139

4 . 4 D e t e r m i n a t i o n s u s i n g I m m o b i l i s e d U r e a s e 140 4. 4 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 140 4 . 4 . 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l 143 4 . 4 . 3 I m m o b i l i s a t i o n P r o c e d u r e s 143 4 - 4 . 4 C o n t i n u o u s — F l o w F I A 149

4 . 4 . 5 C o n c l u s i o n s 154

4 . 5 E L I S A P r o c e d u r e s U s i n g F I A 155

4 .5.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 155

4 . 5 . 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l 156 4 . 5 . 3 F I A P r o c e d u r e s 158

4 . 5 . 4 C o n c l u s i o n s 162

4 . 6 R e f e r e n c e s 165

5. Q U A L I T A T I V E F L O W I N J E C T I O N A N A L Y S I S A P P L I E D T O A B O 168 B L O O D G R O U P D E T E R M I N A T I O N S

5.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 168

5 . 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l 173

5 . 3 S t a t i c E x p e r i m e n t s 174 5 . 4 S t o p — F l o w M e r g i n g Z o n e s F I A 175

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1 I N T R O D U C T I O N

O n e of t h e m a j o r d e v e l o p m e n t s in a n a l y t i c a l c h e m i s t r y h a s b e e n t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e m a n d for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s in b i o l o g i c a l f l u i d s < x > . S u c h a n a l y s e s p r e s e n t t h e t w i n p r o b l e m s of s p e c i f i c i t y a n d s e n s i t i v i t y . T h e c o m p l e x c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e s a m p l e s c o n t a i n i n g a s t h e y d o m a n y d i s t i n c t , b u t s i m i l a r s p e c i e s h a s r e s u l t e d in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of i m m u n o a s s a y s w h i c h c o m b i n e s p e c i f i c i t y w i t h l o w d e t e c t i o n l i m i t s fo r t h e a n a l y t e of int e r e s t . I m m u n o p r e c i p i t i n a s s a y s h a v e b e e n h i s t o r i c a l l y u s e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of s e r u m p r o t e i n s w h i l e l a b e l l e d i m m u n o a s s a y p r o c e d u r e s h a v e b e e n u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y for t h e a n a l y s i s of d r u g s of a b u s e an d h o r m o n e s . T h e v e r y h i g h s e n s i t i v i t i e s r e q u i r e d of t h e a n a l y t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s r e s u l t f r o m t h e s mall v o l u m e of s a m p l e s a v a i l a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y in p a e d i a t r i c s , a n d / o r t h e low c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e a n a l y t e in t h e s a m p l e .

F u r t h e r m o r e t h e r e is t h e n e e d for r a p i d , c h e a p a n d e a s i l y a u t o m a t e d assays. T h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d in t h i s t h e s i s will s h o w t h a t f l o w i n j e c t i o n a n a l y s i s <FIA) t e c h n i q u e s o f f e r a r a n g e of f e a t u r e s s u c h as f l e x i b i l i t y of m o d e s of o p e r a t i o n , small s a m p l e / r e a g e n t c o n s u m p t i o n and s p e e d t h a t a r e ideal f o r m a n y a s p e c t s of t h i s work. T h e y will a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e in w h a t d i r e c t i o n s f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h is r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to e x t e n d i t s a p p l i c a t i o n still f u r t h e r .

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1.1 Immunoassays

A d e f i n i t i o n of i m m u n o l o g y is t h e s c i e n c e of t h e v e r t e b r a t e a n i m a l ' s r e c o g n i t i o n of, s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s e to, and s u b s e q u e n t m e m o r y of, an a n t igen, and t h e r e a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r o d u c t of t h a t r e s p o n s e (antibody) and t h e a n t i g e n w h i c h i n v o k e d its p r o d u c t i o n , to m a k e t h e animal e x e m p t f r o m i n f e c t i o n . Thus, t h e i m m u n o l o g i c a l d e f e n c e m e c h a n i s m of man and ot h e r a n i m a l s i n v o l v e s t h e p r o d u c t i o n of vital ant i b o d i e s . T h e s e a n t i b o d i e s ar e s y n t h e s i s e d in t h e b o d y t o c o m b a t c i r c u l a t i n g t o x i n s or m a c r o m o l e c u l e s w h i c h a r e f o r e i g n to that body. Th e s u b s t a n c e s w h i c h i n v o k e t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a n t i b o d i e s a r e t e r m e d a n t i g e n s , and a r e g e n e r a l l y n a t u r a l l y o c c u r i n g m a c r o m o l e c u l e s (proteins, p o l y s a c c h a r i d e s , n u c l e i c acids) or m i c r o — o r g a n i s m s (bacteria, viruses). S i n c e t h e n u m b e r of p o s s i b l e a n t i g e n s is vast, it is t h e r e f o r e e v i d e n t t h a t a n i m a l s m u s t b e c a p a b l e of s y n t h e s i s i n g m a n y ant i b o d i e s . Thus, t h e s p e c i f i c i t y of i m m u n e r e a c t i o n s ( a n t i g e n — a n t i b o d y r e a c t i o n s ) d e r i v e s f r o m the fact that a p a r t i c u l a r a n t i b o d y m o l e c u l e is h i g h l y s p e c i f i c to th e f o r e i g n b o d y t h a t e v o k e d its f o r m a t i o n . The a b o v e m e n t i o n e d r e a c t i o n is k n o w n as t h e i m m u n e r e s p o n s e , wh i c h is t h e b a s i s for t h e f i e l d of im m u n ology.

A basic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the i m m u n e r e s p o n s e is d e p i c t e d in F i g u r e 1.1. I n j e c t i o n of a p u r e a n t i g e n , t y p i c a l l y a hu m a n p l a s m a p r o t e i n , i n t o the test a n i m a l c a u s e s t h e animal to s y n t h e s i s e a n t i b o d i e s s p e c i f i c to t h e

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i n j e c t e d antigen. S i n c e a n t i g e n — a n t i b o d y r e a c t i o n s a r e s p e c i f i c , it is g e n e r a l l y u n n e c e s s a r y t o i s o l a t e a n t i b o d i e s ■from the b l o o d s e r u m o-f t h e te s t animal in w h i c h t h e y a r e pro d u c e d . The w h o l e s e r u m (antiserum) is u s e d in m a n y assays. H o w e v e r , t h e u s e of p u r i f i e d a n t i b o d i e s , w h i c h a r e a d v a n t a g e o u s in sev e r a l i m m u n o a s s a y s , is b e c o m i n g m o r e p o p ular, d u e to t h e e x c l u s i o n of s i m i l a r s p e c i e s f r o m t h e a n t i s e r u m w h i c h m a y g i v e r i s e t o n o n - s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s e s . T h e s e a n t i b o d i e s th e n c o m b i n e n o n — c o v a l e n t 1y w i t h t h e antigen:

i) 'in— vivo' — to a b o l i s h t h e h a r m f u l e f f e c t s of t h e a n t i g e n

ii) 'in— vitro' — f o r m i n g c o m p l e x e s , t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s an i m m u n o a s s a y

Thus, not o n l y d o a n t i b o d i e s fulfil m a n y c r u c i a l f u n c t i o n s in t h e i m m u n o l o g i c a l d e f e n c e m e c h a n i s m of m a n and o t h e r a nimals, but t h e y are a l s o of i m p o r t a n c e in a n o t h e r ro l e , as a s e r i e s of v e r y s p e c i f i c a n a l y t i c a l rea g e n t s . I m m u n o a s s a y s a r e now u s e d r o u t i n e l y in m a n y l a b o r a t o r i e s fo r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of both m a c r o m o l e c u l e s and l o w m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t c o m p o u n d s (haptens).

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s u g g e s t e d th a t even t h o u g h n a t u r a l a n t i g e n s w e r e n o r m a l l y m a c r o m o l e c u l a r , o n l y r e l a t i v e l y small r e g i o n s of a n t i g e n s , t e r m e d a n t i g e n i c d e t e r m i n a n d s , w e r e a c t u a l l y i n v o l v e d in t h e c h e m i c a l b o n d i n g to a n t ibody. L a n d s t e i n e r <3) e x t e n d e d t h i s f i n d i n g by d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t small m o l e c u l e s , w h i l e no t c a u s i n g a n t i b o d y p r o d u c t i o n on t h e i r own, c o u l d b e m a d e t o d o so b y c o u p l i n g th e m to m a c r o m o l e c u l a r c a r r i e r s ( p r o t e i n s or s y n t h e t i c p o l y p e p t i d e s ) b e f o r e i n j e c t i n g t h e m i n t o t h e te s t animal. Th e r e s u l t i n g a n t i b o d i e s r e a c t w i t h t h e small m o l e c u l e s a l o n e as well as w i t h t h e small m o l e c u l e — c a r r i e r c o n j u g a t e - S u c h small m o l e c u l e s a r e k nown as h a p t e n s e.g. a z o b e n z o a t e and n i t r o p h e n o l d e r i v a t i v e s .

Thus, it is a p p a r e n t t h a t a n y m i c r o - o r g a n i s m or m o l e c u l e th a t is, or can b e m a d e t o be, a n t i g e n i c , m a y b e a n a l y s e d i m m u n o l o g i c a l l y . A n t i b o d i e s w h i c h a r e r a i s e d in te s t a n i m a l s (as antisera) a r e t h e r e a g e n t s u s e d in an a l y t i c a l a s s a y s and t h e a s s a y u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s t h e d e t e c t i o n and d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a n t i g e n ( h a p t e n ) — a n t i b o d y c o m p l e x e s . It is i m p o r t a n t to r e a l i s e h o w e v e r , t h a t m o l e c u l e s that a r e a n t i b o d i e s in o n e s p e c i e s (e.g. h u m a n

IgG) will be a n t i g e n i c in a n o t h e r s p e c i e s (e.g. h u m a n IgG in goats), and thus may be d e t e r m i n e d i m m u n o l o g i c a l l y .

T h u s far, m e n t i o n h a s be e n m a d e of t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of a n t i g e n and antibody. The c o m b i n a t i o n d o e s n o t i n v o l v e t h e f o r m a t i o n of a f i x e d che m i c a l c o m p o u n d by f o r m i n g c o v a l e n t links, but i n v o l v e s w e a k e r i n t e r — m o l e c u l a r f o r c e s ( 4 > . T h i s r e s u l t s in an a g g r e g a t i o n of a n t i g e n and a n t i b o d y m o l e c u l e s

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in d i f f e r i n g m o l e c u l a r p r o p o r t i o n s in v a r y i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , he l d by b a n d s o-f v a r i o u s s t r e n g t h s - F o u r m a i n t y p e s of l i n k a g e s exist:

i) C o u l o m b i c f o r c e s - w h i c h a r i s e f r o m e l e c t r o s t a t i c a t t r a c t i o n b e t w e e n o p p o s i t e l y c h a r g e d g r o u p s in t h e a n t i g e n and in t h e a m i n o — a c i d s i d e c h a i n s of t h e a ntibody.

ii) H y d r o g e n b o n d s — w e a k b o n d s p r o d u c e d b e t w e e n h y d r o g e n d o n a t i n g g r o u p s s u c h as — OH, — N H Z , — C O O H of

a m i n o - a c i d s i d e c h a i n s and t h e a m i d e t y p e l i n k a g e s of th e p e p t i d e bond, — C O — N H — , of a p o l y p e p t i d e m olecule.

iii) H y d r o p h o b i c f o r c e s — o c c u r b e t w e e n n o n — p o l a r g r o u p s

w h i c h a r e a b l e to a p p r o a c h s o c l o s e l y t h a t t h e y e x c l u d e w a t e r m o l e c u l e s .

iv) Van der W a a l ' s f o r c e s — f o r c e s w h i c h d e p e n d u p o n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n e l e c t r o n c l o u d s s u r r o u n d i n g a p p r o a c h i n g m o l e cules.

Th e we a k f o r c e s a l l o w t h e a n t i g e n — a n t i b o d y r e a c t i o n t o b e r e v e r s i b l e and t h e a n t i g e n s and t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n t i b o d i e s m a i n t a i n a s t a t e of d y n a m i c e q u i l i b r i u m w h e r e i n r a n d o m b o n d s a r e c o n s t a n t l y f o r m i n g and b e i n g b r o k e n < = **»> . At e q u l i b r i u m t h e r e l a t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of r e a c t a n t s an d p r o d u c t s r e m a i n constant.

T h e w h o l e p r o c e s s m a y b e e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of a r e v e r s i b l e b i m o l e c u l a r r e a c t i o n on th e b a s i s of t h e l a w of ma s s action, b y the f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n : <7>

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V

Ag + A b AgAb

K2

w h e r e Ag = a n t i g e n , Ab = a n t i b o d y , and k x a n d k z a r e t h e r a t e - c o n s t a n t s of the f o r w a r d and r e v e r s e r e a c t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g to t h e law of m a s s action, t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p holds:

K = iii = C A g A b 3 k3 CAg 3 C Ab 3

w h e r e K is t h e e q u i l i b r i u m constant. T h u s it c a n b e s e e n th a t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a n t igen, t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a n t i b o d y and t h e c o m b i n i n g c a p a c i t y of t h e a n t i b o d y a f f e c t s t h e p r i m a r y A g — Ab r e a c tion. T h e q u a n t i t a t i v e n a t u r e of a n t i g e n — a n t i b o d y r e a c t i o n s w a s f i r s t e x p l o i t e d b y H e i d e l b e r g e r and K e ndall <f3> in 1935. T h e i r r e s u l t s led to t h e p o s t u l a t i o n t h a t t h e f o r m a t i o n of i m m u n o p r e c i p i t a t e s , t h e s o - c a l l e d s e c o n d a r y r e a c t i o n , is b a s e d on a s e r i e s of b i m o l e c u l a r r e a c t i o n s f o l l o w i n g th e law of m a s s a c tion:

Ag + Ab ■— v. AgAb

A g — Ab Ab---^---- A g — (Ab)= ( a n t i b o d y ex c e s s ) a n d l a r g e r a g g r e g a t e s or A g — Ab + A g - A b r (Ag) 2 — (Ab) 2 etc.

f o r m i n g l a r g e a g g r e g a t e s wh e n " c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a t i o s of a n t i g e n and a n t i b o d y ar e at or ne a r e q u i v a l e n c e . T h e s e s e c o n d a r y r e a c t i o n s p r o c e e d s i n c e b o t h a n t i g e n s and a n t i b o d i e s a r e at least d i v a l e n t , w i t h a n t i g e n s u s u a l l y b e i n g p e n t a v a l e n t .

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1-1-1 N o n — l a b e l l e d I m m u n o a s s a y s

In 1897 K r a u s s h o w e d t h a t s o l u b l e m a c r o m o l e c u l a r a n t i g e n s c o m b i n e d w i t h a n t i b o d i e s t o -form a p r e c i p i t a t e . It w a s as l a t e a s t h e 1 9 3 0 's h o w e v e r b e f o r e t h e a b o v e r e a c t i o n s w e r e s t u d i e d in detail. H e i d e l b e r g e r and K e n d a l l <s> (1935) w e r e t h e f i r s t t o r e p o r t a q u a n t i t a t i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of p r o t e i n b y t h e i m m u n o p r e c i p i t i n t e c h n i q u e . T h e y i s o l a t e d an d e s t i m a t e d t h e i m m u n o p r e c i p i t a t e f o r m e d b y a d d i n g i n c r e a s i n g a m o u n t s of an a n t i g e n t o a f i x e d a m o u n t of a n t i b o d y . T h e a m o u n t of p r e c i p i t a t e d c o m p l e x i n c r e a s e s w i t h r i s i n g q u a n t i t i e s of a n t i g e n up t o a c e r t a i n point. T h i s r e g i o n of i n c r e a s i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e a n t i b o d y e x c e s s zone. A b o v e t h i s p o i n t t h e r e is n o f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e in p r e c i p i t a t e d c o m p l e x , w h e r e a d e g r e e of e q u i v a l e n c e e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a c t a n t s , t e r m e d t h e z o n e of e q u i v a l e n c e . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t i e s of a d d e d a n t i g e n , a z o n e of i n h i b i t i o n of c o m p l e x f o r m a t i o n is r e a c h e d ( a n t i g e n e x c e s s ) ; here, t h e r e is a p r o g r e s s i v e d e c r e a s e in t h e a m o u n t of a n t i g e n — a n t i b o d y c o m p l e x p r e c i p i t a t e d . T h i s p a t t e r n of r e a c t i o n , s h o w n c l e a r l y in C h a p t e r 3, is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e i m m u n o p r e c i p i t i n t e c h n i q u e s i n c e b o t h Ag a n d Ab a r e at l e a s t d i v a l e n t , and at e q u i v a l e n c e a p r e c i p i t a t i n g A g — Ab l a t t i c e is f o r m e d . T h e i m m u n o p r e c i p i t i n r e a c t i o n is d e a l t w i t h m o r e f u l l y in S e c t i o n 3.2.3.

M e t h o d s a r e a v a i l a b l e for t h e q u a l i t a t i v e a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s of b o t h s i n g l e a n t i g e n s a n d a n t i g e n m i x t u r e s , and for m o n i t o r i n g t h e c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c s e p a r a t i o n s

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( e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s ) o f s e r u m samples- In m a s t c a s e s t h e a s s a y s a r e not c a r r i e d out in -Free s o l u t i o n , but w i t h i n t h e p o r e s of a gel, t y p i c a l l y agarose- T h i s a p p r o a c h p r o v i d e s a m e a n s of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e anti g e n — a n t i b o d y r e a c t i o n and f a c i l i t a t e s t h e u s e of small s a m p l e v o l u m e s (1— 5 p . 1 > - It a l s o o f f e r s

t e s t s in w h i c h t h e r e s o l u t i o n is i n c r e a s e d b y i n i t i a l l y p e r f o r m i n g a s e p a r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e on t h e s a m p l e ( i m m u n o e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s ) f o l l o w e d by an i m m u n o l o g i c a l r e a c t i o n , w h e r e the s e p a r a t e d a n t i g e n s f o r m p r e c i p i t a t e s w i t h th e i r s p e c i f i c a n t i b o d i e s - In s o m e m e t h o d s , e.g., t h e M a n c i n i i m m u n o d i f f u s i o n t echni q u e <s>> for t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a s i n g l e a n t i g e n , a gel w h i c h is u n i f o r m l y i m p r e g n a t e d wi t h a n t i b o d y is used. A s t a n d a r d v o l u m e of a n t i g e n ( s a m p l e ) , w h e n p l a c e d in t h e a n t i b o d y i m p r e g n a t e d ag a r will d i f f u s e into t h e s u r r o u n d i n g gel, w h e r e t h e r e s u l t i n g c o m b i n a t i o n of a n t i g e n and a n t i b o d y will b e r e v e a l e d as a r i n g of p r e c i p i t a t e . At e q u i l i b r i u m (after a p p r o x . 4S hours) t h e d i a m e t e r or a r e a of t h e p r e c i p i t a t e is r e l a t e d to t h e a m o u n t of a n t i g e n in t h e sample. T h e M a n c i n i t e c h n i q u e f i n d s w i d e s p r e a d u s e in c l i nical l a b o r a t o r i e s for th e q u a n t i t a t i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of h u m a n s e r u m p r o t e i n s .

F u r t h e r a d v a n c e s in gel t e c h n i q u e s h a v e led t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e L a u r e l 1 t e c h n i q u e 410* and t h e t e c h n i q u e of c o u n t e r i m m u n o e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s1 x x * ( C I E P ) . B o t h t h e s e

t e c h n i q u e s p r o v i d e q u a n t i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e c o m p o n e n t s of com p l e x m i x t u r e s of antigens- I n j e c t i o n of su c h a m i x t u r e into an animal p r o d u c e s a p o l y s p e c i f i c

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a n t i s e r u m , w h i c h c o n t a i n s a n t i b o d i e s c a p a b l e of r e a c t i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y w i t h ea c h antigen- In t h e a n a l y s i s o-f m i x t u r e s o-f a n t i g e n s (e.g. w h o l e serum) a s i m p l e z o n e e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s is -followed b y a s e c o n d e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s , p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e first, i n t o an a n t i b o d y c o n t a i n i n g gel. I n d i v i d u a l a n t i g e n s f o r m 'rocket' s h a p e d peaks. CIEP, h o w e v e r , i n c r e a s e s t h e s e n s i t i v i t y and t h e r a t e of t h e i m m u n o p r e c i p i t i n r e a c t i o n in gels. In this a ssay, a n t i g e n s do not d i f f u s e r a n d o m l y , bu t are e l e c t r o p h o r e s e d in i o n — agar, i.e. s a m p l e and a n t i b o d y a r e f o r c e d t o w a r d s ea c h o t h e r b y e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s at pH=8.6. T h e s e n s i t i v i t y m a y b e f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d b y a d d i n g p o l y ( e t h y l e n e glycol) t o t h e agar so as t o e n h a n c e p r e c i p i t a t i o n of i m m u n e c o m p l e x e s < 1 2 > . W h e n a n t i g e n — a n t i b o d y c o m p l e x e s f o r m in s o l u t i o n , e v e n at v e r y low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , t h e y can b e d e t e c t e d b y l i g h t s c a t t e r i n g 413> and t u r b i d i m e t r i c <1‘* > t e c h n i q u e s . Th e c u r r e n t i m p o r t a n c e of t h e i m m u n o p r e c i p i t i n t e c h n i q u e for t h e a n a l y s i s of p l a s m a p r o t e i n s h a s be e n e m p h a s i s e d by t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of an a u t o m a t e d i m m u n o p r e c i p i t i n a n a l y s e r (AIP) by R i t c h i e <iS>. Th i s i n s t r u m e n t , b a s e d on t h e T e c h n i c o n c o n t i n u o u s f l o w ana l y s e r , is c a p a b l e of p r o c e s s i n g o v e r 100 s a m p l e s h o u r " 1 in a m u l t i - c h a n n e l mode. The s u b s e q u e n t u s e of laser n e p h e l a m e t r y to i n c r e a s e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e m e t h o d <1<s> f u r t h e r a t t e s t s t o its c u r r e n t i m p o r t a n c e . M a n y w o r k e r s h a v e r e p o r t e d t h e i m m u n o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of hu m a n i m m u n o g l o b u l i n s w i t h a c e n t r i f u g a l a n a l y s e r . By u t i l i s i n g th i s m e t h o d bo t h e q u i l i b r i u m and k i n e t i c

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t e c h n i q u e s h a v e b e e n used to q u a n t i f y s e r u m i m m u n o g l o b u l i n G l e v e l s 4 1 7 * l0> (Section 3.3.1).

T h e a t t r a c t i o n of t h e i m m u n o p r e c i p i t i n t e c h n i q u e in s o l u t i o n , is that it is a s i m p l e t e c h n i q u e w h i c h y i e l d s r e l a t i v e l y f a s t a n a l y t i c a l r e a d - o u t s , an d as s u c h is r e a d i l y a u t o m a t e d . H o w e v e r a d r a w b a c k of t h e t e c h n i q u e is t h a t it is r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e , but a c c e p t a b l e , for a n a l y s e s of a n a l y t e s w h o s e n ormal c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a n g e s a r e h i g h (e.g. h u m a n s e r u m IgG, r a n g e 6 0 0 - 1 6 0 0 mg d l " 1 ). The n e e d for s u c h r e a d i l y a u t o m a t e d h o m o g e n e o u s a s s a y s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e e v e r e s c a l a t i n g d e m a n d for i m m u n o a s s a y s in c l i n i c a l 1 a b o r a t o r i e s , c o u p l e d wi t h s t r i n g e n t r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s <13>. A u t o m a t i o n of a m e t h o d s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o n t r i b u t e s t o good p r e c i s i o n and inter— l a b o r a t o r y c o r r e l a t i o n 419’ , s i n c e h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n in a c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s is m i n i m i z e d and t h u s an ov e r a l l i m p r o v e m e n t in t h e c o ntrol of t h e a n a l y s i s is achieved.

1 . 1 . 2 L a b e l 1ed I m m u n o a s s a y s

T h e n o n - l a b e l l e d i m m u n o a s s a y p r o c e d u r e s d i s c u s s e d t h u s far a r e o n l y a p p l i c a b l e to p r o t e i n s , and a l t h o u g h s i m p l e and p r e c i s e , t h e y ar e r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e 420’ . In o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e s e assays, i s o t o p i c and n o n — i s o t o p i c l a b e l l e d i m m u n o a s s a y s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d . Initial s t u d i e s by Y a l o w and B e r s o n 421*2 2 ’ in 1959 i n v o l v e d t h e u s e of r a d i o a c t i v e i o d i n e as a label for t h e h o r m o n e insulin, and r a d i o a c t i v e a t o m s are still t h e m o s t c o m m o n l y

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e m p l o y e d l a b e l s in c u r r e n t m e t h o d o l o g y - In t h e m e t h o d o-f r a d i o i m m u n o a s s a y a fixed a m o u n t of r a d i o — l a b e l l e d a n t i g e n

(hapten) p a r t i c i p a t e s in a c o m p e t i t i v e b i n d i n g r e a c t i o n w i t h u n l a b e l l e d (sample) a n t i g e n and a fi x e d a m o u n t of a n t i b o d y . T h e m o r e u n l a b e l l e d a n t i g e n p r e s e n t in t h e test s a m p l e , t h e l e s s l a b e l l e d a n t i g e n c a n b i n d t o t h e antibody. S i n c e t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e r a d i o l a b e l are e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e w h e t h e r the l a b e l l e d a n t i g e n is b o u n d or u n b o u n d , a s e p a r a t i o n step is n e c e s s a r y (after an a p p r o p r i a t e i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d ) , m a k i n g t h e a s s a y r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t to a u t o m a t e . Ho w e v e r , t h e r e a r e a u t o m a t e d R I A s y s t e m s av a i l a b l e , b u t t h e s e a r e v e r y e x p e n s i v e and o f t e n r e q u i r e a s e p a r a t e l a b o r a t o r y in w h i c h t o p e r f o r m t h e assays- T h e s e p a r a t i o n m e t h o d s u s u a l l y e m p l o y e d are:

i) a d s o r p t i o n of th e u n b o u n d a n t i g e n on c h a r c o a l or d e x t r a n - c o a t e d c h a r c o a l .

ii) t h e u s e of so l i d p h a s e a n t i b o d i e s (i.e. i m m o b i l i z e d a n t i b o d i e s ) , wh i c h b i n d t h e u n b o u n d antigen.

T h e r a d i o i s o t o p e s used a r e g e n e r a l l y t h e ^ - e m i t t e r s 3 H a n d 14C, and t h e ^ - e m i t t e r s A==5I and

R a d i o i m m u n o a s s a y s are u s e d in m a n y c l i n i c a l l a b o r a t o r i e s for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of h o r m o n e s (e.g. t h y r o x i n e ) , d r u g s (e.g. b a r b i t u r a t e s , steroids) and m a c r o m o l e c u l e s (e.g. f e r r i t i n , t h y r o g l o b u l i n ) , a s says in w h i c h th e normal c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e in t h e n m o l — fmol r e g i o n and t h u s t o o low t o be d e t e r m i n e d us i n g p r e c i p i t i n t e chniques.

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D e s p i t e t h e e x c e l l e n t s e n s i t i v i t y o-f r a d i o i m m u n o a s s a y (R1A) , r e c e n t e f f o r t s h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d on r e p l a c i n g t h e r a d i o l a b e l w i t h a n o n — i s o t o p i c label. T h i s is d u e t o t h e m a n y d r a w b a c k s o-f r a d i o l a b e l s . P r e p a r a t i o n o-f t h e r a d i o l a b e l l e d a n t i g e n s or a n t i b o d i e s i n v o l v e s h e a l t h ri s k s , w h i c h a r e c u m u l a t i v e , t h e l a b e l l e d p r o t e i n s h o w s b a t c h — t o — b a t c h v a r i a t i o n a n d g e n e r a l l y h a s a s h e l f — l i f e l i m i t e d t o t w o months. S e p a r a t i o n of r e a c t e d f r o m u n r e a c t e d r a d i o l a b e l l e d c o m p o u n d s i s e s s e n t i a l , a n d h e n c e a h e t e r o g e n e o u s t y p e a s s a y s y s t e m is e m p l o y e d <23> .

N o n — i s o t o p i c a s s a y s a r e p o p u l a r b e c a u s e t h e y a v o i d t h e n e e d for t h e s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s an d s p e c i a l i s t e q u i p m e n t r e q u i r e d f o r r a d i o l a b e l s . T h e m e t h o d s m a y b e h o m o g e n e o u s , an d t h u s r e a d i l y an d e a s i l y a u t o m a t e d . T h i s r e s u l t m a y b e a c h i e v e d b y u s i n g a label w h o s e p r o p e r t i e s c h a n g e w h e n t h e l a b e l l e d p r o t e i n is b o u n d t o i t s a n t i g e n / a n t i b o d y . A m o n g t h e n o n — i s o t o p i c l a b e l s u s e d t o d a t e h a v e b e e n e n z y m e s < 2 4 *2 S > , v i r u s e s < 2 6 > , metal i o n s < 2 7 > , f r e e r a d i c a l s <=so> ,

chemi l u m i n e s c e n t a n d b i o l u m i n e s c e n t g r o u p s <2,?> , a n d f l u o r e s c e n t g r o u p s <3 0 > ; of t h e s e o n l y e n z y m e l a b e l s a n d t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t f l u o r e s c e n t la b e l s , a r e c u r r e n t l y in u s e in c l i n i c a l l a b o r a t o r i e s . T h e r e m a i n d e r of t h i s d i s c u s s i o n is c o n f i n e d t o t h e u s e of e n z y m e s as labels. A m o r e t h o r o u g h t r e a t m e n t a p p e a r s in S e c t i o n 4.1.

T h e a d v a n t a g e s of u s i n g e n z y m e l a b e l s in i m m u n o a s s a y are:

i) no r a d i a t i o n h a z a r d s o c c u r d u r i n g l a b e l l i n g or d i s p o s a l

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o-f w a s t e

ii) e n z y m e — label led p r o d u c t s c a n h a v e a long shel-f— li-fe e.g. o n e y e a r

iii) e q u i p m e n t (e.g. s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t e r s ) for e n z y m e — i m m u n o a s s a y is i n e x p e n s i v e and g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e iv> e n z y m e s a r e b i o l o g i c a l c a t a l y s t s . S i n c e a s i n g l e

m o l e c u l e of c a t a l y s t ca n t r a n s f o r m m a n y m o l e c u l e s of s u b s t r a t e t o p r o d u c t b y r e p e a t i n g t h e c a t a l y t i c e v e n t o v e r an d o v e r a gain, t h e c a t a l y s t (enzyme) a c t s in e f f e c t a s an amp l i f i e r ,

v) t h e f inal s t e p of an e n z y m e i m m u n o a s s a y p r o c e d u r e is b a s i c a l l y t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of e n z y m e a c t i v i t y , a p r o c e d u r e w h i c h is r o u t i n e l y u s e d in m a n y c l i n i c a l l a b o r a t o r i e s .

E n z y m e — i m m u n o a s s a y (ElA) is c a r r i e d o u t v i a t w o m a i n p r o t o c o l s :

i) H e t e r o g e n e o u s E n z y m e — i m m u n o a s s a y ii) H o m o g e n e o u s E n z y m e — i m m u n o a s s a y

T h e f a c t o r s w h i c h g o v e r n t h e c h o i c e of e n z y m e l a b e l s fo r a p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n in E I A a r e l i s t e d in T a b l e 1.1. Th e s i g n i f i c a n t p a r a m e t e r s a r e t h o s e w h i c h a r e d e r i v e d f r o m s t u d i e s on t h e c o u p l e d e n z y m e — p r o t e i n c o n j u g a t e r a t h e r t h a n on t h e n a t i v e enzyme. T h e s e f a c t o r s m a y d i f f e r d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e n a t u r e of t h e p r o t e i n (e.g. m o l e c u l a r size, c h a r g e etc.), t h e n u m b e r of s i t e s of a t t a c h m e n t and t h e c o u p l i n g a g e n t e m p 1o y e d .

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T a b l e 1,1

F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g t h e S e l e c t i o n an d P e r f o r m a n c e of E n z y m e s as I m m u n o c h e m i c a l L a b e l s

C r i t e r i a for E n z y m e S e l e c t i o n

a) H i g h s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t y at a s u i t a b l e p H

b) A s i m p l e and s e n s i t i v e d e t e c t i o n m u s t e x i s t

c> L a c k of i n h i b i t i o n b y s u b s t a n c e s p r e s e n t in b i o l o g i c a l f l u i d s

d> P o s s e s s r e a c t i v e g r o u p s t h r o u g h w h i c h it m a y b e c o n j u g a t e d to ot h e r m o l e c u l e s

e) R e t a i n its a c t i v i t y after t h e c o n j u g a t i o n s t e p

f) Be a v a i l a b l e in h i g h p u r i t y at a r e a s o n a b l e c o s t g) S t a b l e u n d e r a s s a y and s t o r a g e c o n d i t i o n s

h) A b s e n c e of e n d o g e n o u s a c t i v i t y in t h e s a m p l e

H e t e r o g e n e o u s E I A is an a n a l y t i c a l t e c h n i q u e t h a t w a s o r i g i n a l l y r e p o r t e d by Van W e e m a n and S c h u u r s <31> an d E n g v a l 1 and P e r l m a n n < 3 2 } . T h e p r i n c i p l e s b e h i n d t h e v a r i o u s a s s a y p r o t o c o l s a r e s i m i l a r to t h o s e in w h i c h o t h e r l a b e l s a r e used- C o m p e t i t i v e E I A is a n a l o g o u s t o t h e c l a s s i c a l R I A

c-p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d above- T h e c h o i c e of s e p a r a t i o n m e t h o d in h e t e r o g e n e o u s E I A is l i m i t e d by t h e l a r g e s i z e of t h e e n z y m e label as c o m p a r e d to the r a d i o l a b e l , w h i c h p r e c l u d e s the u s e of m e t h o d s wh i c h are c o m m o n l y u s e d in R I A s u c h as ch a rcoal s e p a r ation. S e p a r a t i o n m e t h o d s e m p l o y e d i n c l u d e t h e u s e of se c o n d a n t i b o d i e s < 3 3 > , and t h e u s e of m a g n e t i c

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p a r t i c l e s (paly— (acrylamide) b e a d s i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h iron oxide) li n k e d t o e i t h e r t h e a n t i g e n or a n t i b o d y . H e t e r o g e n e o u s E l A m e t h o d s have, h o w e v e r , m a d e m o s t i m p a c t w h e n such s e p a r a t i o n m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n d i s p e n s e d with. T h i s g r e a t a d v a n t a g e has b e e n r e a l i s e d b y e m p l o y i n g s o l i d s u p p o r t s on w h i c h to i m m o b i l i z e e i t h e r t h e a n t i b o d y or t h e antigen.

the u s e of s o l i d - s u p p o r t s in b o t h c o m p e t i t i v e and n o n - c o m p e t i t i v e t e c h n i q u e s was g i v e n t h e n a m e E n z y m e L i n k e d I m m u n o S o r b e n t A s s a y (ELISA) by E n g v a l l and P e r l m a n n < 3 2 > . The s o l i d s u p p o r t mo s t -frequently used in E L I S A is t h e p o l y s t y r e n e m i c r o t i t r a t i o n pl a t e , w h i c h is c h e a p and r e q u i r e s o n l y small v o l u m e s of r e a gents. C o m m e r c i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y of e q u i p m e n t n o w a l l o w s i n c u b a t i o n , w a s h i n g a n d d i r e c t 'through t h e plate' r e a d i n g of a b s o r b a n c e . T h e final a b s o r b a n c e r e a d i n g is d u e t o t h e a c t i o n of t h e e n z y m e label on a s u b s t r a t e s o l u t i o n w h i c h c o n t a i n s a c h r o m o p h o r e . T h e a b s o r b a n c e of t h i s s o l u t i o n m a y t h e n b e r e l a t e d t o t h e initial a m o u n t of a n t i g e n p r e s e n t in th e sample.

H o m o g e n e o u s E l A - The E n z y m e M u l t i p l i e d I m m u n o a s s a y T e c h n i q u e (EMIT) is the m o s t w i d e l y u s e d h o m o g e n e o u s e n z y m e i m m u n o a s s a y . The t e c h n i q u e w a s i n t r o d u c e d b y R u b e n s t e i n et anci d e p e n d s on a c h a n g e in th e s p e c i f i c e n z y m e

a c t i v i t y w h e n a n tigen b i n d s to e n z y m e l a b e l l e d a n t i b o d y . The a c t i v i t y of th e u n s e p a r a t e d a s s a y m i x t u r e c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e p r o p o r t i o n of e n z y m e l a b e l l e d a n t i b o d y to w h i c h a n t i g e n is bound.

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The e a r l i e s t E M I T s y s t e m s< 3 0 * e m p l o y e d l y s o z y m e as t h e

e n z y m e label. T h e nat u r a l s u b s t r a t e for t h i s e n z y m e is t h e p e p t i d o g l y c a n l i n k a g e of t h e cell w a l l s of c e r t a i n b a c t e r i a . W h e n l y s o z y m e a c t s on a s u s p e n s i o n of c e r t a i n b a c t e r i a t h e t u r b i d i t y of t h e s u s p e n s i o n is r e d u c e d , t h u s p r o v i d i n g a c o n v e n i e n t m e a s u r e of e n z y m e a c t ivity. L y s o z y m e — a n t i b o d y c o n j u g a t e s a r e a c t i v e w i t h t h e b a c t e r i a l s u s p e n s i o n b u t w h e n a n t i g e n s b i n d t o t h e e n z y m e - a n t i b o d y c o n j u g a t e , a s t e r i c b a r r i e r is p r e s e n t e d to t h e b u l k y substr a t e . A n t i g e n b i n d i n g in t h i s w a y can i n h i b i t up t o 9 8 % of t h e e n z y m e a c t i v i t y . Thus, t h e m o r e a n t i g e n p r e s e n t in t h e s a m p l e t h e m o r e t h e i n h i b i t i o n of t h e e n z y m e a c t i v i t y , y i e l d i n g a lo w a b s o r b a n c e value.

T h u s bo t h E L I S A and E M I T a r e v e r s a t i l e m e t h o d o l o g i e s d e s i g n e d to m e a s u r e m i c r o - a m o u n t s of a n a l y t e s in t e s t samples. A c o m p a r i s o n of E L I S A and E M I T is g i v e n in T a b l e 1.2.

T h e ma j o r a d v a n t a g e of th e E M I T s y s t e m is t h a t it c a n be a u t o m a t e d w i t h r e l a t i v e e a s e and p r o d u c e s r a p i d r e s u l t s . T h e c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e 'kit' m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n a d a p t e d for u s e w i t h c e n t r i f u g a l a n a l y s e r s <3<s>> and c o n t i n u o u s f l o w s y s t e m s * 3 7 ’ .

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TABLE 1,2

C o m p a r i s o n of E L I S A and E M I T T e c h n i q u e s

E L I S A E M I T

H e t e r o g e n e o u s a s s a y

R e a g e n t s e p a r a t i o n r e q u i r e d ( c e n t r i f u g a t i o n or f i l t r a t i o n ) R e a g e n t w a s h i n g s r e q u i r e d

S l o w e r t h a n E M I T S e n s i t i v i t y > E M I T

M a c r o m o l e c u l e s m e a s u r e d (antigens, a n t i b o d i e s ) S o l i d p h a s e a s s a y

H o m o g e n e o u s a s s a y

R e a g e n t s e p a r a t i o n n o t r e q u i r e d

St e p w a s h i n g s not r e q u i r e d

F a s t e r th a n E L I S A S e n s i t i v i t y < E L I S A

Small m o l e c u l e s m e a s u r e d (h a p t e n s — e.g. drugs) L i q u i d p h a s e a s s a y

A u t o m a t i o n of t h e t w o E l A p r o c e d u r e s , E L I S A and E M I T , u s i n g f l o w i n j e c t i o n a n a l y s i s is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 4.

1.2 F l o w I n j e c t i o n A n a l y s i s

T h e c o n c e p t of f l o w i n j e c t i o n a n a l y s i s (FIA) w a s i n t r o d u c e d in 1975 by R u z i c k a and H a n s e n <3f3>, a n d is a t e c h n i q u e b a s e d on u n s e g m e n t e d c o n t i n u o u s flow. In its b r o a d e s t c o n t e x t c o n t i n u o u s f l o w a n a l y s i s r e f e r s to a n y p r o c e s s in w h i c h t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a n a l y t e is m e a s u r e d u n i n t e r r u p t e d l y in a s t r e a m of liquid. In t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , s u c c e s s i v e s a m p l e s p a s s t h r o u g h th e s a m e l e n g t h of t u b i n g in t h e a n a l y s e r , r e a g e n t s b e i n g a d d e d f u r t h e r

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d o w n s t r e a m , t h e m i x i n g and i n c u b a t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e w h i l e t h e s a m p l e s o l u t i o n is on its w a y t o w a r d s a f l o w — t h r o u g h d e t e c t o r , w h e r e t h e signal is c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r e d and r e c o r d e d <3<?> . T h e m a i n d i f f i c u l t y t o o v e r c o m e is t h e i n t e r m i x i n g of a d j a c e n t s a m p l e s d u r i n g t h e i r p a s s a g e t h r o u g h t h e a n a l y s e r co n d u i t s . T o m i n i m i z e t h i s s o - c a l l e d c a r r y o v e r , S k e g g s t“*°> i n t r o d u c e d air s e g m e n t a t i o n , t h u s d i v i d i n g t h e f l o w i n g s t r e a m i n t o a n u m b e r of c o m p a r t m e n t s s e p a r a t e d by air bubbles. T h e f i r s t s y s t e m w a s d e s i g n e d for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of u r e a an d glucose; t h e T e c h n i c o n A u t o A n a l y z e r o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d f o r t h i s m e t h o d h a s s i n c e b e c o m e t h e m o s t p o p u l a r a u t o m a t i c a n a l y s e r e v e r m a r k e t e d .

By c h a n g i n g t h e c o n c e p t s on w h i c h air— s e g m e n t e d c o n t i n u o u s f l o w s y s t e m s h a v e b e e n based, t h e t e c h n i q u e u s e d to p e r f o r m c o n t i n u o u s f l o w a s s a y s ma y b e g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d . F I A is b a s e d on t h e i n j e c t i o n of a f i x e d v o l u m e of l i q u i d s a m p l e in t o a n o n — s e g m e n t e d c o n t i n u o u s c a r r i e r s t r e a m of r e a g e n t or buffer. T h e i n j e c t e d s a m p l e f o r m s a zone, w h i c h is then t r a n s p o r t e d t o w a r d s a d e t ector. T h e d e t e c t o r c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r s t h e a b s o r b a n c e , e l e c t r o d e p o t e n t i a l , or other ph y s i c a l p a r a m e t e r w h i c h c o n t i n u o u s l y c h a n g e s a s a r e s u l t of th e p a s s a g e of th e s a m p l e m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h t h e f 1o w - c e l 1 <3 Q > . T h e s i m p l e s t f l o w i n j e c t i o n a n a l y z e r ,d e p i c t e d as a m a n i f o l d in F i g u r e 1.2a), c o n s i s t s of a p e r i s t a l t i c pump, wh i c h is u s e d to propel t h e r e a g e n t / b u f f e r s t r e a m (R) t h r o u g h a n a r r o w t u b e ( typically 0 . 5 m m id); an i n j e c t i o n port, by m e a n s of w h i c h a f i x e d v o l u m e of a s a m p l e s o l u t i o n

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TABLE 1,2Comparison of ELISA and EMIT Techniques
Figure 2.1 35
Figure 2.3. The
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References

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