Lymphatic & Immune system
Lymphatic & Immune system
13.1 The
13.1 The Lymphatic System
Lymphatic System
Lymphatic System Functions Lymphatic System Functions
TheThe
1.
1. Lymphatic vessels return excess tissue fluid to the blooLymphatic vessels return excess tissue fluid to the bloodstreamdstream 2.
2. lacteals receive and transport lipoproteinslacteals receive and transport lipoproteins 3.
3. lymphatic organs work with the immune system to combat diseaselymphatic organs work with the immune system to combat disease
The walls of lymphatic cThe walls of lymphatic capillaries consist mostly ofapillaries consist mostly of
Lymphatic Vessels Lymphatic Vessels
Small, lymphatic capillaries join to formSmall, lymphatic capillaries join to form
The lymphatic vessels collect fat molecules atThe lymphatic vessels collect fat molecules at intestinal villi and excess tissue fluid at blood intestinal villi and excess tissue fluid at blood carry lymph to the veins
carry lymph to the veins
The fluid inside lymphatic veThe fluid inside lymphatic vessels is calledssels is called
Lymphatic Ducts Lymphatic Ducts
Lymphatic vessels merge before entering oneLymphatic vessels merge before entering one of two
of two 1.
1.
from below thorax, and from left arm, left from below thorax, and from left arm, left side of head and neck and leads to left side of head and neck and leads to left subclavian vein
subclavian vein 2.
2. head andhead and
neck and returns to subclavian vein neck and returns to subclavian vein Q: Which one is bigger and why?
Q: Which one is bigger and why? The
The
below the thorax, the left arm, left side of the head and neck into the left subclavian vein. below the thorax, the left arm, left side of the head and neck into the left subclavian vein. The right lymphatic duct only returns lymph from the right arm and right side of the head The right lymphatic duct only returns lymph from the right arm and right side of the head
lymphatic system
lymphatic system has three main functions: has three main functions:
simple squamous (scaled) epithelium simple squamous (scaled) epithelium
lymphatic vessels lymphatic vessels lymph lymph ducts ducts Thoracic duct
Thoracic duct: collects and returns lymph: collects and returns lymph
Right lymphatic duct
Right lymphatic duct: collects and returns lymph from right arm, right side of : collects and returns lymph from right arm, right side of thoracic duct
and neck into right subclavian vein. and neck into right subclavian vein.
Lymphatic Vessels (ctd Lymphatic Vessels (ctd’’)) cardiovascular veins: cardiovascular veins: o
o Have one way valvesHave one way valves o
o Dependent upon muscle contractionDependent upon muscle contraction
(failure of lymphatic system to drain them) (failure of lymphatic system to drain them) Lymphatic Organs
Lymphatic Organs
numbers of lymphocytes, are separated numbers of lymphocytes, are separated into
into
the thymus gland) and the thymus gland) and nodes and spleen) nodes and spleen)
mature in the primary lymphatic organs, mature in the primary lymphatic organs, accumulate in the cortex of these organs accumulate in the cortex of these organs
Q: What are the two types ofQ: What are the two types of lymphocytes again?
lymphocytes again?
The thoracic duct is responsible for The thoracic duct is responsible for returning lymph collected from a returning lymph collected from a greater range (mainly the area greater range (mainly the area below the thorax) than the right below the thorax) than the right lymphatic duct.
lymphatic duct.
Lymph vessels
Lymph vessels are similar in structure to are similar in structure to
Edema
Edema is retention of fluids in the tissues is retention of fluids in the tissues
Lymphoid organs
Lymphoid organs, which contain large, which contain large primary
primary (the red bone marrow and (the red bone marrow and secondary
secondary (lymph (lymph Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes, which are produced and, which are produced and
A A : : B B c c e e l l l l s s a a n n d d T T c c e e l l l l s s
Red Bone Marrow Red Bone Marrow
o
o ProduceProduce that become that become
blood cells blood cells
o
o Only found in certain locationsOnly found in certain locations
in adults in adults o o Thymus Gland Thymus Gland TheThe o
o Divided into lobesDivided into lobes o
o
Secondary Lymphatic Organs Secondary Lymphatic Organs
In secondary lymphaticIn secondary lymphatic organs, lymphocytes organs, lymphocytes encounter and bind to encounter and bind to antigens, after they antigens, after they proliferate and engage proliferate and engage foreign material in the foreign material in the body
body
Blood is cleansed ofBlood is cleansed of pathogens and their pathogens and their toxins in the larger toxins in the larger spleen.
spleen.
Red Bone Marrow Red Bone Marrow
stem cells stem cells
B lymphocytes mature here B lymphocytes mature here
thymus gland thymus gland::
Site of T-lymphocyte maturation Site of T-lymphocyte maturation
Lymph Nodes Lymph Nodes
Small ovoid structures foundSmall ovoid structures found near lymph vessels
near lymph vessels
Clean lymph; made of manyClean lymph; made of many
Each noduleEach nodule
o
o Contains aContains a o
o Macrophages filterMacrophages filter
lymph in sinuses by lymph in sinuses by engulfing pathogens engulfing pathogens
o
o T-lymphocytes fightT-lymphocytes fight
infections and attack infections and attack cancerous cancerous
Questions
Questions
Q: What is Metastasis? Q: What is Metastasis? A: A:caused by the ability of cancer to migrate and invade tissue. caused by the ability of cancer to migrate and invade tissue.
Q: Where is bone marrow found in children? What about in adults? Q: Where is bone marrow found in children? What about in adults? A:
A: in a child. In aduin a child. In adult, it is present in the bones of lt, it is present in the bones of thethe skull, the sternum, the ribs, the clavicle, the pelvic bones, and the vertebral column.
skull, the sternum, the ribs, the clavicle, the pelvic bones, and the vertebral column. Q: What occurs at the sinuses of red bone marrow?
Q: What occurs at the sinuses of red bone marrow? A:
A: The thin-walledThe thin-walled
cells, the stem cells and their progeny. Differentiated blood cells will enter the bloodstream at cells, the stem cells and their progeny. Differentiated blood cells will enter the bloodstream at these sinuses.
these sinuses.
Q: Where is the thymus gland located? Have a figure Q: Where is the thymus gland located? Have a figure that indicates the thymus gland.
that indicates the thymus gland. A:
A:
the trachea and the sternum above the heart. the trachea and the sternum above the heart.
Q: Where are T-lymphocytes produced? Where do they Q: Where are T-lymphocytes produced? Where do they mature?
mature? A:
A:
the bone marrow, and matures in the thymus the bone marrow, and matures in the thymus Q: Which T-lymphocytes leave the Thymus? Q: Which T-lymphocytes leave the Thymus? A:
A: OnlyOnly of the T-cells which areof the T-cells which are leave the leave the thymus.
thymus.
Q: Why is the thymus gland crucial to immunity? Q: Why is the thymus gland crucial to immunity? A:
A: Thymus gland is crucial to the adapting immune system, since it allows the T cells to mature. Thymus gland is crucial to the adapting immune system, since it allows the T cells to mature. Q: Of what is the spleen made and what is the spleen’s function? What happens if the Q: Of what is the spleen made and what is the spleen’s function? What happens if the spleen is damaged/destroyed/removed?
spleen is damaged/destroyed/removed? A:
A: Red pulp consists of blood vessels and sinuses where macrophages remove old and defective Red pulp consists of blood vessels and sinuses where macrophages remove old and defective blood cells; lymphocytes cleanse the blood of foreign particles. To conclude,
blood cells; lymphocytes cleanse the blood of foreign particles. To conclude,
. The spleen also has white pulp that is inside the red pulp and . The spleen also has white pulp that is inside the red pulp and nodules
nodules
sinus sinus
Metastasis
Metastasis is the spread of cancer from the place of origin throughout the body, which is is the spread of cancer from the place of origin throughout the body, which is Red bone marrow
Red bone marrow is found in most bones is found in most bones sinuses
sinuses that are filled with venous blood can be found o that are filled with venous blood can be found outside the reticularutside the reticular
Thymus gland
Thymus gland is located in the thoracic cavity between is located in the thoracic cavity between
T-lymphocyte
T-lymphocyte develops in the primary lymphoid organs - develops in the primary lymphoid organs
-capable of reacting to foreign molecules or cells capable of reacting to foreign molecules or cells
most of the spleen most of the spleen is red pulp that filters the blood
consists of small areas of lymphatic tissue. If the spleen of
consists of small areas of lymphatic tissue. If the spleen of a person is damaged/burst due to a person is damaged/burst due to anan infection of trauma, the person is often slightly more susceptible to infections and may have to infection of trauma, the person is often slightly more susceptible to infections and may have to receive antibiotic therapy indefinitely.
receive antibiotic therapy indefinitely. Q:
Q: A sick person comes to visit the doctor. Why might he/she feel the patients’ neckA sick person comes to visit the doctor. Why might he/she feel the patients’ neck during an examination?
during an examination? A:
A: This is to check whether or not the This is to check whether or not the might be evidence that the body is might be evidence that the body is
13.2 Innate (Nonspecific) and Acquired (Specific) Immunity
13.2 Innate (Nonspecific) and Acquired (Specific) Immunity
Immunity Immunity o o o o Non-specific Defenses Non-specific Defenses
There are 4 typesThere are 4 types of non-specific of non-specific defenses: defenses: Barriers to Entry Barriers to Entry
All of the following contribute to keeping pathogens from entering the bodyAll of the following contribute to keeping pathogens from entering the body
o o
(mechanical barrier against entry) (mechanical barrier against entry)
o o
o o
o
o anan ibits growth)ibits growth)
Inflammatory Reaction Inflammatory Reaction
lymph nodes
lymph nodes are abnormal. are abnormal.Swollen, tender lymph nodesSwollen, tender lymph nodes fighting an infection
fighting an infection..
Immunity
Immunity is the body’s ability to defend against infection and involvesis the body’s ability to defend against infection and involves Nonspecific (Innate) or
Nonspecific (Innate) or
Specific (Acquired) defenses Specific (Acquired) defenses
1. 1. Barriers toBarriers to entry entry 2. 2. InflammatoryInflammatory reaction reaction 3.
3. Natural killerNatural killer cells cells 4. 4. ProtectiveProtective Proteins Proteins
Skin and mucous membranes lining the respiratory, digestive and urinary tract Skin and mucous membranes lining the respiratory, digestive and urinary tract Oil glands
Oil glands (contains chemicals that awaken or kill bacteria (contains chemicals that awaken or kill bacteria on skin)on skin) Ciliated cells
Ciliated cells (sweep particles in mucus for (sweep particles in mucus for expectoration (coughing))expectoration (coughing)) acidic stomach
acidic stomach (kills or inh (kills or inh Beneficial bacteria
TheThe
involves 1) redness, ii) heat, iii) involves 1) redness, ii) heat, iii) swelling, and iv) pain, which are swelling, and iv) pain, which are all due to changes in the
all due to changes in the capillary, such as dilation and capillary, such as dilation and increased permeability.
increased permeability.
The release ofThe release of
inflammatory chemical) and inflammatory chemical) and and mast cells causes redness, and mast cells causes redness, heat, and swelling
heat, and swelling
The swollen area and kininsThe swollen area and kinins stimulate free nerve endings, stimulate free nerve endings, causing the sensation of causing the sensation of
Macrophages migrate to the site of injury and can engulf pathogens and also releaseMacrophages migrate to the site of injury and can engulf pathogens and also release more white blood more white blood cells (aka
cells (aka –– stimulate other immune cells) stimulate other immune cells)
mediator) released by white blood
mediator) released by white blood cells. Chemical mediators may cause chroniccells. Chemical mediators may cause chronic inflammation.
inflammation. Natural Killer Cells Natural Killer Cells
–– infected cells and tumor c infected cells and tumor cells byells by cell-to-cell contact
cell-to-cell contact
o
o NK cells areNK cells are
have altered “self
have altered “self--proteins,” which NK cells look for andproteins,” which NK cells look for and then attack.
then attack.
o
o NK cellsNK cells cells,cells,
they have
they have ot increaseot increase
when exposed to a specific antigen. when exposed to a specific antigen.
They canThey can
o
o amplify (complement) the inflammatory reaction by attracting phagocytes andamplify (complement) the inflammatory reaction by attracting phagocytes and
promoting phagocytosis promoting phagocytosis
o
o trigger histamine releasetrigger histamine release o
o bind to pathogens already coated with antibodies to ensure phagocytation by abind to pathogens already coated with antibodies to ensure phagocytation by a
neutrophil, dendritic cell of macrophage neutrophil, dendritic cell of macrophage
o
o Some complement proteins join to form pores in the surface of bacteria and causeSome complement proteins join to form pores in the surface of bacteria and cause
them to burst them to burst inflammatory reaction inflammatory reaction histamine histamine (an (an kinins
kinins from damaged tissue cells from damaged tissue cells
pain pain.. colony
colony –– stimulating factors that cause the bone marrow to release stimulating factors that cause the bone marrow to release Anti-inflammatory drugs
Anti-inflammatory drugs act against the act against the chemical mediatorschemical mediators (histamine is a chemical (histamine is a chemical
Natural killer (NK) cells
Natural killer (NK) cells kill virus kill virus
granular lymphocytes
granular lymphocytes that look for “that look for “self- self-proteins
proteins” on cells; virus” on cells; virus-infected or cancer cells sometimes-infected or cancer cells sometimes are not specific
are not specific like some other white blood like some other white blood no memory
no memory, and their numbers do n, and their numbers do n Complement proteins
Complement proteins, a large part of the, a large part of the complement system (often simply calledcomplement system (often simply called complement
o
o Interferon is a protein produced by virus-Interferon is a protein produced by
virus-infected cells that prepares non-infe
infected cells that prepares non-infected cellscted cells for attack and
for attack and interferes with viral replication;interferes with viral replication; it is specific to a species
it is specific to a species Specific Defenses
Specific Defenses
Take effect whenTake effect when
stop an infection stop an infection
TakeTake
have
have (able to stop or impede (able to stop or impede subsequent infections from same pathogen) subsequent infections from same pathogen) Antigen
Antigen
AnAn is a foreign substance. The body is a foreign substance. The body
does not consider its own
does not consider its own proteins foreign;proteins foreign; therefore the immune
therefore the immune system must distinguishsystem must distinguish self from non-self
self from non-self
B- and T- cells B- and T- cells
Specific defenses requireSpecific defenses require
B cells give rise toB cells give rise to
antigen receptor antigen receptor T-cells
T-cells
T-cells do not produce antibodies; they differentiateT-cells do not produce antibodies; they differentiate
into into
Each lymphocyte is specific to only one receptor; ourEach lymphocyte is specific to only one receptor; our
bodies contain lymphophytes that recognize hundreds bodies contain lymphophytes that recognize hundreds of thousands (to millions) of different type of pathog of thousands (to millions) of different type of pathogensens B-Cells and Antibody - Mediated Immunity
B-Cells and Antibody - Mediated Immunity
As B-cells encounter an antigen in a lymph node orAs B-cells encounter an antigen in a lymph node or
clonally divides many times. The
clonally divides many times. The resulting cells areresulting cells are antibodies antibodies which are specific to the antigen that triggered the BCR which are specific to the antigen that triggered the BCR Memory B-cells
Memory B-cells
Some members of the clone becomeSome members of the clone become
remain in the body and produce antibodies if the same remain in the body and produce antibodies if the same antigen enters the body at a later date
antigen enters the body at a later date
When infection passes, plasma cells undergo apoptosisWhen infection passes, plasma cells undergo apoptosis
((
After clearing the body of an invading organism, the After clearing the body of an invading organism, the B-cell retains memory of its target and rests until B-cell retains memory of its target and rests until another infection occurs.
another infection occurs.
non-specific defenses have failed non-specific defenses have failed to to 5-7 days
5-7 daysto become fully activated, andto become fully activated, and lasting effect
lasting effect antigen
antigen
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes have a large number of have a large number of antigen antigen receptors
receptors
B (B-cells) and T B (B-cells) and T (T-cells) lymphocytes
cells) lymphocytes, which are, which are produced in theproduced in the bone marrow.
bone marrow.
antibodies
antibodies that are shaped as an that are shaped as an
help-T and cytotoxic-T cells help-T and cytotoxic-T cells
spleen
spleen, its, its BCR (B-cell receptor)BCR (B-cell receptor) is activated and the B-cellis activated and the B-cell plasma plasma cells
cells, mature B-cells that can mass-produce , mature B-cells that can mass-produce
memory B cells memory B cells that that
programmed cell death programmed cell death))
Structure of an antibody (i.e. IgG) Structure of an antibody (i.e. IgG)
The most common type of antibody, theThe most common type of antibody, the
molecule that has
molecule that has for a specific antigen. Each one has for a specific antigen. Each one has
IgGs (cont'd) IgGs (cont'd)
for destruction and/or activatefor destruction and/or activate
complement complement
Some portions of the IgG have fixed amino-acidSome portions of the IgG have fixed amino-acid
chains, while others have variable amino-acid chains, while others have variable amino-acid chains, which allows them to
chains, which allows them to
Other Types of Antibodies Other Types of Antibodies
including IgG. They activate the complement including IgG. They activate the complement system
system
function as described in Table function as described in Table 13.113.1 Table 1302A: Classes of Antibodies
Table 1302A: Classes of Antibodies
IgG (immunoglobulin) antibody
IgG (immunoglobulin) antibody, is a Y-shaped, is a Y-shaped two binding sites
two binding sites a light and heavya light and heavy
chain chain
Antigen- antibody complexes
Antigen- antibody complexes often mark the antigen often mark the antigen
recognize all sorts of recognize all sorts of different pathogens
different pathogens Immunoglobulins (Igs)
Immunoglobulins (Igs) include a include a total of five typestotal of five types IgE antibodies
IgE antibodies are responsible for are responsible for immediateimmediate allergic responses
allergic responses. All differ in structure and . All differ in structure and Class
Class Presence Presence FunctionFunction
IgG
IgG Main Main antibody antibody type type in in circulation circulation Binds Binds to to pathogens, pathogens, activatesactivates
complement, and enhances phagocytosis complement, and enhances phagocytosis IgM
IgM Antibody Antibody type type found found in in circulation; circulation; largestlargest antibody
antibody
Activates complement, clumps cells Activates complement, clumps cells IgA
IgA Main Main antibody antibody type type in in secretions secretions such such asas saliva and milk
saliva and milk
Prevents pathogens from attaching to Prevents pathogens from attaching to epithelial cells in digestive and r
epithelial cells in digestive and respiratoryespiratory tract
tract IgD
IgD Antibody Antibody type type found found on on surface surface ofof immature B cells
immature B cells
Presence signifies readiness of B cell to Presence signifies readiness of B cell to
respond to antigens respond to antigens IgE
IgE Antibody Antibody type type found found as as antigen antigen receptorsreceptors on eosinophils in blood and on mast cells on eosinophils in blood and on mast cells
in tissues in tissues
Responsible for immediate allergic Responsible for immediate allergic response and protection against certain response and protection against certain
parasitic worms parasitic worms
. Like B cells, each T-cell bears a. Like B cells, each T-cell bears a
However, for a T-cell to recognize an antigen, the antigen must be presented by anHowever, for a T-cell to recognize an antigen, the antigen must be presented by an
T-cells mature in the thymus
T-cells mature in the thymus specific receptor (TCR)specific receptor (TCR) antigen-presenting cell (APC),
MHC MHC
An APC will travel to the spleen or lymph node andAn APC will travel to the spleen or lymph node and
present a portion of a digested pathogen to a groove in present a portion of a digested pathogen to a groove in an MHC
an MHC
When a viral or cancer cell antigen is presented, theWhen a viral or cancer cell antigen is presented, the
antigen is first linked to a antigen is first linked to a
Human MHC Human MHC
Human MHC proteins are calledHuman MHC proteins are called
are signal chemicals that stimulate various immune are signal chemicals that stimulate various immune cells; many copies ofcells; many copies of
activated T cells are produced activated T cells are produced Types of T Cells
Types of T Cells
The two main types of T cells areThe two main types of T cells are
cytokines, which enhance thecytokines, which enhance the
response of all types of
response of all types of immune cellsimmune cells
Some T cells areSome T cells are reinfection.reinfection.
Questions
Questions
Q: From what is pus made, and what does it indicate is happening in the body? Q: From what is pus made, and what does it indicate is happening in the body? A:
A:
inflammation during infection and is com
inflammation during infection and is composed of white blood cells, bacteria posed of white blood cells, bacteria and cellular debris.and cellular debris. Q: What do aspirin, ibuprofen and cortisone all do?
Q: What do aspirin, ibuprofen and cortisone all do? A:
A:
minimize the effects of various chemical m
minimize the effects of various chemical mediators.ediators.
major histocompatibility major histocompatibility complex (MHC) protein
complex (MHC) protein. After presentation:. After presentation:
MHC 1 -> activates T cells to form cytotoxic T cells MHC 1 -> activates T cells to form cytotoxic T cells MHC 2 -> activates T cells to form helper T ce MHC 2 -> activates T cells to form helper T cellslls
HLA (Human HLA (Human lymphocyte-associated) antigens lymphocyte-associated) antigens.. Cytokines Cytokines
cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells Cytotoxic T-cells
Cytotoxic T-cells kill infected cells that bear a foreign antigen on contact kill infected cells that bear a foreign antigen on contact Helper T cells
Helper T cells stimulate other immune cells and produce stimulate other immune cells and produce memory cells
memory cells that will jump-start an immune reaction upon that will jump-start an immune reaction upon B cells cannot be activated without T cell
B cells cannot be activated without T cells’s’ help. help.
Pus
Pus is a protein-rich liquid, usually yellowish (to gre is a protein-rich liquid, usually yellowish (to green) that is formed at the site ofen) that is formed at the site of
Aspirin, ibuprofen and cortisone
Q: a) What do helper T cells do? b) What do cytotoxic T cells do? Q: a) What do helper T cells do? b) What do cytotoxic T cells do? A: a)
A: a)
cytokines. The cytokines produced by T
cytokines. The cytokines produced by THH cells may help activate c cells may help activate cytotoxic T cells, as well as Bytotoxic T cells, as well as B
cells. cells. b)b)
many molecules of perforin and enzymes called granzymes. Activated T
many molecules of perforin and enzymes called granzymes. Activated TCC cell binds to a virus- cell binds to a
virus-infected or cancer c
infected or cancer cell that is presenting foreign antigen oell that is presenting foreign antigen on its MHC class I molecules, it releasesn its MHC class I molecules, it releases perforin molecules, which form pores in the
perforin molecules, which form pores in the plasma membrane of the abnormal cell. plasma membrane of the abnormal cell. This allowsThis allows the granzymes to enter the target cell, which is induced to undergo apoptosis and die.
the granzymes to enter the target cell, which is induced to undergo apoptosis and die. Q: Why are plasma cells larger than B cells?
Q: Why are plasma cells larger than B cells? A:
A: Plasma cells are larger than regular B cells because they have extensive rough endoplasmic Plasma cells are larger than regular B cells because they have extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum for the mass production a
reticulum for the mass production and secretion of antibodies to a nd secretion of antibodies to a specific antigen. Antibodiesspecific antigen. Antibodies are the secreted form of the B-cell receptor of the B cell that was activated.
are the secreted form of the B-cell receptor of the B cell that was activated. Q: What is the clonal selection theory?
Q: What is the clonal selection theory? A:
A: TheThe
type of B cell or T cell, and then this B-cell or T-cell divides, forming clones of itself. type of B cell or T cell, and then this B-cell or T-cell divides, forming clones of itself. Q: What is antibody-mediated immunity?
Q: What is antibody-mediated immunity? A:
A: Defense by B cells is called the Defense by B cells is called the activated B cells become
activated B cells become plasma cells that produce antibodies. It is also cplasma cells that produce antibodies. It is also called humoral immunityalled humoral immunity because these antibodies are present in blood and lymph.
because these antibodies are present in blood and lymph. Q: What is “humor”? (Not humour)
Q: What is “humor”? (Not humour) A:
A:
Q: What are the characteristics of B cells? Q: What are the characteristics of B cells?
Provide antibody-mediated immunity against pathogensProvide antibody-mediated immunity against pathogens
Produced and mature in bone marrowProduced and mature in bone marrow
Reside in lymph nodes and spleen; circulate in blood and lymphReside in lymph nodes and spleen; circulate in blood and lymph
Directly recognize antigen and then undergo clonal selectionDirectly recognize antigen and then undergo clonal selection
Clonal expansion produces antibody-secreting plasma cells as well as memory B cellsClonal expansion produces antibody-secreting plasma cells as well as memory B cells Q: Why is an antigen-antibody like a lock and a key?
Q: Why is an antigen-antibody like a lock and a key? A:
A: The variable regions of antibodies become hypervarible at their tips and form antigen-bindingThe variable regions of antibodies become hypervarible at their tips and form antigen-binding sites; their shape is specific for a p
sites; their shape is specific for a particular antigen. It is the variable and harticular antigen. It is the variable and hypervarible regionsypervarible regions that allow that antibody to bind to a specific antigen. The antigen combines with the antibody at that allow that antibody to bind to a specific antigen. The antigen combines with the antibody at the antigen-binding site in a lock and key manner.
the antigen-binding site in a lock and key manner.
Q: What are the 5 main types of antibodies (or Igs)*? Where are they present? What is Q: What are the 5 main types of antibodies (or Igs)*? Where are they present? What is each one’s function?
each one’s function? A:
A: Refer to Page 9 of this note package- Table 1302A: Classes of AntibodiesRefer to Page 9 of this note package- Table 1302A: Classes of Antibodies
Q: What happens when apoptosis does not occur as it should? What may also happen in Q: What happens when apoptosis does not occur as it should? What may also happen in the thymus?
the thymus?
Helper T cells
Helper T cells, once stimulated by antigen-presenting , once stimulated by antigen-presenting cells (APC), Tcells (APC), THH cells secrete various cells secrete various
Cytotoxic T cells are also called Killer T
Cytotoxic T cells are also called Killer T-cells-cells. They have storage vacuoles that contain. They have storage vacuoles that contain
clonal selection theory
clonal selection theory states that an antigen binds to the antigen receptor of only one states that an antigen binds to the antigen receptor of only one
antibody-mediated immunity
antibody-mediated immunity because the various types of because the various types of
Humor
A:
A: When apoptosis does not occur as it should, T-cell cancers (i.e., lymphomas and leukemias)When apoptosis does not occur as it should, T-cell cancers (i.e., lymphomas and leukemias) can result.
can result.
Q: What are perforins and granzymes? Q: What are perforins and granzymes? A:
A: TTCC have storage vacuoles that contain many molecules of perforin and enzymes called have storage vacuoles that contain many molecules of perforin and enzymes called
granzymes. granzymes.
Q: How does AIDS affect the immune system? Where does it reside hide in the body? Q: How does AIDS affect the immune system? Where does it reside hide in the body? A:
A: AIDS infects helper T cells and other cells of the immune system, it suppresses manyAIDS infects helper T cells and other cells of the immune system, it suppresses many
components of acquired immune responses and makes HIV-infected individuals susceptible to components of acquired immune responses and makes HIV-infected individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections. Infected macrophages and dendritic cells also serve as reservoirs for opportunistic infections. Infected macrophages and dendritic cells also serve as reservoirs for HIV.HIV. Q: What are the characteristics of T cells?
Q: What are the characteristics of T cells?
Produced in bone marrow, mature in thymusProduced in bone marrow, mature in thymus
Function in cell-mediated immunity against virus-infected cells and cancer cellsFunction in cell-mediated immunity against virus-infected cells and cancer cells
Reorganize antigens presented in groove of an MHC moleculeReorganize antigens presented in groove of an MHC molecule
Cytotoxic T cells destroy nonself protein-bearing cellsCytotoxic T cells destroy nonself protein-bearing cells
Helper T cells secrete cytokines that control the immune responseHelper T cells secrete cytokines that control the immune response
* The original question asks for the “5 main types of IgG”, which does not exist as IgG only has 4 subclasses according to Wi
* The original question asks for the “5 main types of IgG”, which does not exist as IgG only has 4 subclasses according to Wi kipedia,kipedia, and are not included within the Biology 12 curriculum. This should be a typo and “antibodies”or “Igs (
and are not included within the Biology 12 curriculum. This should be a typo and “antibodies”or “Igs (ImmunoglobulinsImmunoglobulins)”)” should beshould be in place for “IgG”
in place for “IgG”
13.3 (Active vs. Passive) / (Induced) Immunity
13.3 (Active vs. Passive) / (Induced) Immunity
Active immunity Active immunity
A person naturally develops immunity after infectionA person naturally develops immunity after infection
exposure to a vaccine - u
exposure to a vaccine - usually an a virulent (non-harmful) disease agent - antibodies aresually an a virulent (non-harmful) disease agent - antibodies are produced produced as a vaccine as a vaccine With aWith a (count of (count of antibodies in a fixed volume) rises to a antibodies in a fixed volume) rises to a much higher level
much higher level
Active immunity is long-lived becauseActive immunity is long-lived because
there are memory B cells and memory there are memory B cells and memory T cells that will respond to
T cells that will respond to lower doseslower doses of antigen in the body
of antigen in the body Passive Immunity
Passive Immunity
For example, nursing passes antibodies from mother
For example, nursing passes antibodies from mother to childto child
However, passive immunity is short-lived since the antibodies were not produced by theHowever, passive immunity is short-lived since the antibodies were not produced by the
person's own B cells. person's own B cells. Vaccines
Vaccines are available to induce long-lived active immunity when a person is well. After are available to induce long-lived active immunity when a person is well. After Bacteria
Bacteria can be used to mass produce proteins (aka - from pathogens) that can be used can be used to mass produce proteins (aka - from pathogens) that can be used booster shot or second
booster shot or second exposure, the antibody titre exposure, the antibody titre
Passive immunity
Cytokines and Immunity Cytokines and Immunity
are signalling molecules produced by white blood cells. are signalling molecules produced by white blood cells.
fighting against cancer fighting against cancer Monoclonal Antibodies Monoclonal Antibodies
All plasma cells derived from a B cell secretes an identical antigen. These are calledAll plasma cells derived from a B cell secretes an identical antigen. These are called
B lymphocytes can therefore be exposed to a particular antigen and will produceB lymphocytes can therefore be exposed to a particular antigen and will produce
monoclonal antibodies that are quick and certain indicators of various specific conditions monoclonal antibodies that are quick and certain indicators of various specific conditions
Activated B lymphocytes are fused Activated B lymphocytes are fused with myeloma cells and thesewith myeloma cells and these
only one type of antibody. Monoclonal antibodies are most often used in diagnostic only one type of antibody. Monoclonal antibodies are most often used in diagnostic procedures such as
procedures such as
Questions
Questions
Q: What is a "booster" shot? Draw a graph with titer level [antibodies] on y-axis and Q: What is a "booster" shot? Draw a graph with titer level [antibodies] on y-axis and time on x-axis. Label 1st and 2nd exposure to vaccine.
time on x-axis. Label 1st and 2nd exposure to vaccine. A:
A: A A is the second exposure of a vaccine to a person’s body. For graph refer tois the second exposure of a vaccine to a person’s body. For graph refer to the diagram at the top of this page.
the diagram at the top of this page.
Q: What is a gamma globulin injection, and why is it used? Q: What is a gamma globulin injection, and why is it used? A:
A: from individualsfrom individuals
who have recovered from the illness. It is used to prevent illness in a patient who has been who have recovered from the illness. It is used to prevent illness in a patient who has been expectedly expose to disease.
expectedly expose to disease.
Q: Why are cancer cells more susceptible to cytotoxic T cells? How might cytokines help Q: Why are cancer cells more susceptible to cytotoxic T cells? How might cytokines help in the fight against cancer?
in the fight against cancer? A:
A: Because many cancer cells carry altered proteins on cell surface, they should be attacked andBecause many cancer cells carry altered proteins on cell surface, they should be attacked and destroyed by cytotoxic T cells. Cytokines could activate the cytotoxic T cells and awaken the destroyed by cytotoxic T cells. Cytokines could activate the cytotoxic T cells and awaken the immune system, leading to the destruction of the cancer.
immune system, leading to the destruction of the cancer.
Q: How are monoclonal antibodies related to pregnancy tests? How does it works? Q: How are monoclonal antibodies related to pregnancy tests? How does it works? A:
A: A particular hormone is present in the urine of a pregnant women. A monoclonal antibodyA particular hormone is present in the urine of a pregnant women. A monoclonal antibody can be used to detect this hormone; if it is present, the woman is pregnant.
can be used to detect this hormone; if it is present, the woman is pregnant.
13.4(-13.5*) Adverse Effects (and Disorders) of
13.4(-13.5*) Adverse Effects (and Disorders) of Immune Responses
Immune Responses
*Textbook 12 *Textbook 12thth
Edition Only Edition Only Sometimes, the immune system
Sometimes, the immune system harmsharms the body the body
Develop allergiesDevelop allergies
Incompatible bloodIncompatible blood
Tissue rejectionTissue rejection
Autoimmune diseaseAutoimmune disease
Cytokines
Cytokines Both interferon andBoth interferon and
interleukins
interleukins are cytokines that are used to improve a person's own T cell performance in are cytokines that are used to improve a person's own T cell performance in
monoclonal antibodies monoclonal antibodies
hybridomas
hybridomas produce produce pregnancy tests
pregnancy tests but could carry isotopes to destroy cancerous tumors but could carry isotopes to destroy cancerous tumors
“
“ ooster” ooster” shotshot
Gamma globulin injection
Allergies Allergies
he immune system reacts vigorously to substanceshe immune system reacts vigorously to substances
(allergens) that would not normally harm the body.
(allergens) that would not normally harm the body. The response itself can The response itself can cause somecause some degree of tissue damage.
degree of tissue damage. Immediate Allergic Response Immediate Allergic Response
is an example. Anaphylactic shock is a severe reaction that may cause a fatal drop in is an example. Anaphylactic shock is a severe reaction that may cause a fatal drop in blood pressure
blood pressure
Delayed Allergic Response Delayed Allergic Response
cells. cells.
This skin test for tuberculosis is an example, This skin test for tuberculosis is an example, as is allergy to poison ivy, as is allergy to poison ivy, jewelry, etc.jewelry, etc.
Occurs at site of contact of Occurs at site of contact of allergen with skin/part of body.allergen with skin/part of body.
Blood type and reactions Blood type and reactions
TheThe
In theIn the
antigen and antibody are
antigen and antibody are put together, clumping, or agglutination, occurs; in this way put together, clumping, or agglutination, occurs; in this way thethe blood type of the individual may be determined.
blood type of the individual may be determined.
o
o Antigen-A is an antigen, but not to people with type A bloodAntigen-A is an antigen, but not to people with type A blood o
o Antigen-B is an antigen, but not to people with type b blood.Antigen-B is an antigen, but not to people with type b blood. o
o receiving the wrong blood type is like injecting something someone is allergic toreceiving the wrong blood type is like injecting something someone is allergic to
into their blood system.(bad) into their blood system.(bad) Rh System
Rh System
TheThe
Rh-mother may form antibodies to Rh antigen while carrying or at the birth of a child Rh-mother may form antibodies to Rh antigen while carrying or at the birth of a child who is Rh+
who is Rh+
o
o These antibodies can cross the placenta to destroy the red blood cells of anyThese antibodies can cross the placenta to destroy the red blood cells of any
subsequent Rh+ child subsequent Rh+ child Allergic responses
Allergic responses occur when t occur when t
Immediate allergic responses
Immediate allergic responses occur within seconds of contact with an allergen. Hay fever occur within seconds of contact with an allergen. Hay fever
Delayed allergic responses
Delayed allergic responses, such as contact dermatitis, are due to the activity of memory T, such as contact dermatitis, are due to the activity of memory T
membranes of red blood cells
membranes of red blood cells may contain may contain type A, AB, B or no antype A, AB, B or no antigens (type O)tigens (type O) plasma
plasma there are two p there are two possible antibodies:ossible antibodies: anti-A and anti-Banti-A and anti-B. If the corresponding. If the corresponding
Rh antigen
o o AA
stimulate the mother to produce her own antibodies stimulate the mother to produce her own antibodies
Tissue rejection Tissue rejection
cells bring about the destruction of foreign tcells bring about the destruction of foreign tissue inissue in
the body. A close match between donor and recipient can reduce rejection. the body. A close match between donor and recipient can reduce rejection.
cells to cytokines, but cancells to cytokines, but can
result in kidney damage. result in kidney damage. Diseases of the immune system Diseases of the immune system
Autoimmune diseases include: myasthenia Autoimmune diseases include: myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus,gravis, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus,
rheumatoid arthritis, and heart damage after rheumatic fever rheumatoid arthritis, and heart damage after rheumatic fever Diabetes, AIDS and SCID
Diabetes, AIDS and SCID
It has been suggested thatIt has been suggested that diseases diseases ExamplesExamples
genetic disorder in which
genetic disorder in which the immune system fails to develop.the immune system fails to develop.
Questions
Questions
Q: How are IgE related to immediate allergic responses? Q: How are IgE related to immediate allergic responses? Q:
Q: IgE leads to immediate allergic responses, as they IgE leads to immediate allergic responses, as they are attached to receptors on are attached to receptors on the plasmathe plasma membrane of mast cells in the
membrane of mast cells in the tissues and also to eosinophils and basophils in tissues and also to eosinophils and basophils in the blood. Whenthe blood. When an allergen attached
an allergen attached to IgE, these cells release histamine that bring about to IgE, these cells release histamine that bring about allergic symptoms.allergic symptoms. Q: What causes
Q: What causes the symptoms the symptoms for i) Hay for i) Hay fever fever ii) Asthmaii) Asthma A:
A: i) When pollen is an i) When pollen is an antigen, histamine stimulates the mucous membranes of the nose anantigen, histamine stimulates the mucous membranes of the nose an dd eyes, causes runny nose and watery eyes typical of
eyes, causes runny nose and watery eyes typical of
to the lungs constrict, resulting in difficult breathing accompanied by wheezing. When food to the lungs constrict, resulting in difficult breathing accompanied by wheezing. When food contains an allergen, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea often result.
contains an allergen, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea often result. Rho-Gm shot
Rho-Gm shot uses uses anti-Rh antibodies to attack Rh+ cellsanti-Rh antibodies to attack Rh+ cells before they can before they can
Rejection
Rejection occurs when cytotoxic T occurs when cytotoxic T Immunosuppressive drugs
Immunosuppressive drugs act by inhibiting the response of T act by inhibiting the response of T
Autoimmune diseases
Autoimmune diseases occur when occur when T cells or antibodiesT cells or antibodies mistakenly attack the body's ownmistakenly attack the body's own cells
cells as if they bear foreign as if they bear foreign antigensantigens
type I diabetes
type I diabetes is an autoimmune disease is an autoimmune disease immunodeficiency
immunodeficiency results when the immune results when the immune system is unable to protect the body system is unable to protect the body againstagainst include AIDS and SCID
include AIDS and SCID (Severe combined autoimmune deficiency disorder), a(Severe combined autoimmune deficiency disorder), a
hay fever
Q: What is anaphylactic shock? What causes it? What are its characteristic symptoms and Q: What is anaphylactic shock? What causes it? What are its characteristic symptoms and what can be done to slow it down?
what can be done to slow it down? A:
A:
entered the blood steam.
entered the blood steam. It is often caused by bee stings and It is often caused by bee stings and penicillin shots, and characterizedpenicillin shots, and characterized by a sudden and life-threatening drop in blood pressure due to increased permeability
by a sudden and life-threatening drop in blood pressure due to increased permeability of theof the capillaries caused by histamines.
capillaries caused by histamines. help is available.
help is available.
Q: What happens if you give someone with Blood type A an infusion of type B blood? Q: What happens if you give someone with Blood type A an infusion of type B blood? A:
A: Type A blood would have type A antigen, which the person with type B blood would containType A blood would have type A antigen, which the person with type B blood would contain anti-B antibodies in their blood to attack.
anti-B antibodies in their blood to attack.
Q: What percent of people are Rh+ and Rh-? Q: What percent of people are Rh+ and Rh-? A:
A: 85% of people are Rh+, and 15% of people are Rh-.85% of people are Rh+, and 15% of people are Rh-.
Q: What is xenotransplantation? (it is not growing plants for the aliens) Q: What is xenotransplantation? (it is not growing plants for the aliens) A:
A: is the use of animal organs instead of human o is the use of animal organs instead of human organs in transplantrgans in transplant patients.
patients.
The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels and the lymphoid org
The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels and the lymphoid org ans. It is closely associated withans. It is closely associated with the cardiovascular system.
the cardiovascular system. Lymphatic Vessels Lymphatic Vessels Lymphatic
Lymphatic vessels vessels form form a a one-way one-way system system that that begins begins with with lymphatic lymphatic capillaries capillaries that that take take upup excess tissue fluid. The fluid inside lymphatic vessels is called lymph.
excess tissue fluid. The fluid inside lymphatic vessels is called lymph. Lymphoid Organs
Lymphoid Organs
The primary lymphoid organs are red bon
The primary lymphoid organs are red bone marrow and the thymus gland. The marrow and the thymus gland. The secondarye secondary lymphoid organs are the spleen and lymph nod
lymphoid organs are the spleen and lymph nodes.es. Primary Lymphoid Organs
Primary Lymphoid Organs Red bone marrow is the site o
Red bone marrow is the site of stem cells that are ever capable of dividing andf stem cells that are ever capable of dividing and producing blood cells. The thymus gland
producing blood cells. The thymus gland is largest in children and shrinks as weis largest in children and shrinks as we get older. Immature T cells migrate from the bon
get older. Immature T cells migrate from the bone marrow through the bloode marrow through the blood stream to the thymus, where they mature.
stream to the thymus, where they mature. Secondary Lymphoid Organs
Secondary Lymphoid Organs
Lymphocytes migrate to the secondary lymphoid organs. Here
Lymphocytes migrate to the secondary lymphoid organs. Here they encounterthey encounter foreign molecules or cells, after which they pro
foreign molecules or cells, after which they proliferate and become activated.liferate and become activated. The spleen filters the blood. Lymph nodes
The spleen filters the blood. Lymph nodes are packed with B and T are packed with B and T cells.cells.
Immunity is the body’s capability of removing o
Immunity is the body’s capability of removing or killing forer killing foreign substances, pathogens, and ign substances, pathogens, and cancer cells.cancer cells. Mechanisms of innate immunity are fully functional without p
Mechanisms of innate immunity are fully functional without p revious exposure to these substances, whilerevious exposure to these substances, while Anaphylactic shock
Anaphylactic shock is an immediate allergic response that occurs is an immediate allergic response that occurs because the allergen hasbecause the allergen has Injecting epinephrine
Injecting epinephrine can counteract this reaction can counteract this reaction until medicaluntil medical
Xenotransplantation Xenotransplantation
adaptive immunity is enhanced by exposure to
adaptive immunity is enhanced by exposure to specific antigens. An antigen is any molecule thatspecific antigens. An antigen is any molecule that stimulates an immune response.
stimulates an immune response. Innate Immunity
Innate Immunity
The four types of innate immunity
The four types of innate immunity include physical and chemical barriers, inflammation,include physical and chemical barriers, inflammation, phagocytes and natural killer cells, and protective proteins.
phagocytes and natural killer cells, and protective proteins. Physical and Chemical Barriers
Physical and Chemical Barriers Skin and mucous membranes lining th
Skin and mucous membranes lining the respiratory, digestive, and urinary tracts serve ase respiratory, digestive, and urinary tracts serve as mechanical barriers to entry of pathogens. The secretions of oil glands in the skin contain mechanical barriers to entry of pathogens. The secretions of oil glands in the skin contain chemicals that weaken or kill certain bacteria on
chemicals that weaken or kill certain bacteria on the skin. The stomach has an acid pH,the skin. The stomach has an acid pH, which kills many types of bacteria or
which kills many types of bacteria or inhibits their growth.inhibits their growth. Inflammation
Inflammation
An inflamed area has four signs: redness, heat, swelling, and pain. An inflamed area has four signs: redness, heat, swelling, and pain. Phagocytes and Natural Killer Cells
Phagocytes and Natural Killer Cells
Neutrophils and macrophages migrate to the area of tissue damage where they Neutrophils and macrophages migrate to the area of tissue damage where they engulf pathogens. Natural killer cells kill abnormal cells by cell-to-cell co
engulf pathogens. Natural killer cells kill abnormal cells by cell-to-cell co ntact.ntact. Protective Proteins
Protective Proteins
The complement system is composed of a number of blo
The complement system is composed of a number of blood plasma proteins thatod plasma proteins that form a membrane attack complex to destroy invading b
form a membrane attack complex to destroy invading bacteria. Interferons areacteria. Interferons are proteins produced by virus-in
proteins produced by virus-infected cells as a warning to noninfected cells.fected cells as a warning to noninfected cells. Adaptive Immunity
Adaptive Immunity
In adaptive immunity, the body is
In adaptive immunity, the body is able to distinguish “self” from “nonself”. Adaptiveable to distinguish “self” from “nonself”. Adaptive defenses primarily depend on the action of lympho
defenses primarily depend on the action of lymphocytes, which differentiate as eithercytes, which differentiate as either B cells or T cells.
B cells or T cells.
B Cells and Antibody-Mediated Immunity B Cells and Antibody-Mediated Immunity When a B cell is
When a B cell is activated by binding to a specific antigen, activated by binding to a specific antigen, it is activated andit is activated and makes many copies of itself. Activated B cells become plasma cells that produce makes many copies of itself. Activated B cells become plasma cells that produce antibodies.
antibodies.
Structure of an Antibody Structure of an Antibody
Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins. They are typically Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins. They are typically Y-shaped molecules with two binding sites for foreign antigens. shaped molecules with two binding sites for foreign antigens. Types of Antibodies
Types of Antibodies
There are five major classes of antibodies: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and Ig There are five major classes of antibodies: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and Ig E.E. T Cells and Cell-Mediated Immunity
T Cells and Cell-Mediated Immunity
T cells can only recognize an antigen when it is displayed to them by an antigen T cells can only recognize an antigen when it is displayed to them by an antigen presenting cell in conjunction
presenting cell in conjunction with an MHC (major histocompatibility complex)with an MHC (major histocompatibility complex) protein. There are two major types of T
protein. There are two major types of T cells: helper T cells and cytotoxic cells: helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells. Helper TT cells. Helper T cells secrete various cytokines while cytotoxic T cells d
cells secrete various cytokines while cytotoxic T cells destroy the target cell.estroy the target cell.
In active immunity, the individual
In active immunity, the individual alone produces an immune response against an antigen; in passivealone produces an immune response against an antigen; in passive immunity, the individual is given prepared antibodies or
immunity, the individual is given prepared antibodies or cells via an injection.cells via an injection. Active Immunity
Active Immunity
Active immunity usually develops naturally after a person
Active immunity usually develops naturally after a person is infected with a pathogen.is infected with a pathogen. Immunization involves the use of vaccines to
Immunization involves the use of vaccines to initiate immunity.initiate immunity. Passive Immunity
Passive Immunity
Passive immunity occurs when an individual is given prepared antibodies o
Passive immunity occurs when an individual is given prepared antibodies o r immune cells tor immune cells to combat a disease. This occurs naturally from mother to
combat a disease. This occurs naturally from mother to fetus.fetus. Immune Therapies
Immune Therapies
Cytokines and Immunity Cytokines and Immunity
Cytokines are chemical messengers produced by T cells, macrophages, and other Cytokines are chemical messengers produced by T cells, macrophages, and other cells. They regulate white blood cell formation and/or fun
cells. They regulate white blood cell formation and/or fun ction. They may bection. They may be used as immunotherapeutic drugs in
used as immunotherapeutic drugs in the future.the future. Monoclonal Antibodies
Monoclonal Antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies can be produced in
Monoclonal antibodies can be produced in vitro. Currently these are being usedvitro. Currently these are being used for quick and certain diagnosis o
for quick and certain diagnosis of various conditions. These may be uf various conditions. These may be used to treat cancer.sed to treat cancer.
Allergies Allergies
Allergies are hypersensitivities to substances, such as pollen, food, or animal hair that
Allergies are hypersensitivities to substances, such as pollen, food, or animal hair that ordinarilyordinarily would
would do no do no harm to harm to the the body. An body. An immediate immediate allergic allergic response caresponse can occur n occur within secowithin seconds ofnds of contact with the
contact with the antigen and may antigen and may result in result in anaphylactanaphylactic shock, ic shock, a life- a life- threatening problem. Athreatening problem. A delayed allergic response is initiated by memory T
delayed allergic response is initiated by memory T cells.cells. Blood-Type Reactions
Blood-Type Reactions
The ABO blood system is the most important of
The ABO blood system is the most important of the blood typing systems.the blood typing systems. ABO System
ABO System
The presence or absence of type A and
The presence or absence of type A and type B antigens on red blood type B antigens on red blood cellscells determine a person’s blood type. Transfusion wit
determine a person’s blood type. Transfusion with the wrong type blood can be fatal.h the wrong type blood can be fatal. Rh System
Rh System
Another important antigen in matching blood types is the Rh factor. A mismatch can be Another important antigen in matching blood types is the Rh factor. A mismatch can be fatal.
fatal. Tissue Rejection Tissue Rejection
The immune system is responsible for rejection of transp
The immune system is responsible for rejection of transp lanted tissue. Organ rejection can belanted tissue. Organ rejection can be controlled by administering immunosuppressive drugs.
controlled by administering immunosuppressive drugs.
When a person has an
When a person has an autoimmune disease, cytotoxic T cells or antibodautoimmune disease, cytotoxic T cells or antibodies mistakenly attack the body’sies mistakenly attack the body’s own cells. Examples include
own cells. Examples include myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. In myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. In anan immune deficiency, the immune system is unable to protect the b
immune deficiency, the immune system is unable to protect the b ody against disease. Examples includeody against disease. Examples include AIDS and severe combined
