HPGD1103 Curiculum Development

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(1)HPGD1103 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Prof Dr John Arul Phillips. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(2) Project Directors:. Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil Prof Dr Widad Othman Open University Malaysia. Module Writer:. Prof Dr John Arul Phillips Open University Malaysia. Adapted by:. Teh Lai Ling Open University Malaysia. Developed by:. Centre for Instructional Design and Technology Open University Malaysia. Printed by:. Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd. Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9, Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya, 43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan. First Edition, October 2010 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2011, HPGD1103 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(3) Table of Contents Course Guide Course Assignment Guide. xii-xvii xxii-xxv. Topic 1. What is Curriculum? 1.1 Definitions of Curriculum 1.2 The Hidden Curriculum 1.3 Curriculum Approaches 1.3.1 Curriculum as Content 1.3.2 Curriculum as Product 1.3.3 Curriculum as Process 1.4 Foundations of Curriculum 1.5 Curriculum Development 1.6 Curriculum as a Discipline 1.7 Curriculum and Instruction Summary Key Terms References. 1 4 7 8 8 9 11 12 14 15 16 18 18 19. Topic 2. Philosopical Foundations of Curriculum 2.1 What is Philosophy? 2.2 Philosophy of Education 2.3 Philosophy and Curriculum 2.4 Perennialism 2.4.1 What is Perennialism? 2.4.2 The Perennialist Curriculum 2.5 Essentialism 2.5.1 What is Essentialism? 2.5.2 The Essentialist Curriculum 2.6 Progressivism 2.6.1 What is Progressivism? 2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum 2.7 Reconstructionism 2.7.1 What is Reconstructionism? 2.7.2 The Reconstructionist Curriculum 2.8 Abu Nasr Al-Farabi 2.8.1 Al-Farabi on Education 2.8.2 Al-Farabi on Curriculum. 20 22 23 23 25 25 25 28 28 29 30 30 31 32 32 33 35 35 36. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(4) iv. TABLE OF CONTENTS. . 2.9. Confucius 2.9.1 Confucius on Education 2.9.2 Confucius on Curriculum 2.10 Rabindranath Tagore 2.10.1 Tagore on Education 2.10.2 Tagore on Curriculum Summary Key Terms References. 38 38 39 40 40 41 42 43 44. Topic 3. Pyschological Foundations of Curriculum 3.1 Understanding Learning 3.2 Behaviourism 3.2.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) 3.2.2 Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) 3.2.3 B. Frederick Skinner (1900-1980) 3.2.4 Walter Bandura (1925 ă Present) 3.2.5 Behaviourism in the Classroom 3.3 Cognitivism 3.3.1 The Information Processing Approach 3.3.2 Meaningful Learning 3.3.3 Levels of Cognitive Development 3.3.4 Metacognition 3.3.5 Cognitivism in the Classroom 3.4 Constructivism 3.4.1 Learning is the Active Construction Of Knowledge 3.4.2 Learning is a Social Activity 3.4.3 Constructivism in the Classroom 3.5 Humanism 3.5.1 Abraham Maslow 3.5.2 Carl Rogers 3.5.3 Arthur Combs 3.5.4 Humanism in the Classroom Summary Key Terms References. 45 47 48 49 49 50 52 53 53 54 56 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 65 66 66 67 69 70 70. Topic 4. Social and Historical Foundations of Curriculum 4.1 Society and Curriculum 4.2 Changing Economy and Curriculum 4.3 The Changing Family Institution and Curriculum 4.4 Cultural Diversity and Curriculum 4.5 Special Interest Groups and Curriculum. 72 75 77 78 79 80. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(5) . v. Knowledge that is Most Worth Evolution of Curriculum 4.7.1 Case Study 1: History of the American School Curriculum 4.7.2 Case Study 2: History of Japan's School Curriculum Summary Key Terms References. 82 83 84 89 94 94 95. Topic 5. Curriculum Planning 5.1 The Curriculum Development Process 5.2 Models of Curriculum Development 5.2.1 The Tyler Model 5.2.2 The Taba Model 5.2.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model 5.3 Goals of Education 5.4 Levels of Goals 5.4.1 Educational Philosophy 5.4.2 Education Goals 5.4.3 Curriculum Goals 5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives 5.4.5 Instructional Goals 5.4.6 Instructional Objectives 5.5 Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 5.6 Classifying Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 5.6.1 Cognitive Domain 5.6.2 Affective Domain 5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain Summary Key Terms References. 96 97 98 98 101 103 105 106 107 109 110 110 112 112 113 114 115 116 117 119 119 120. Topic 6. Curriculum Design 6.1 What Is Curriculum Design? 6.2 Content Selection 6.2.1 What is Content? 6.2.2 How Should Students Learn Content? 6.2.3 How Should Content Be Selected? 6.3 Principles of Content Organisation 6.3.1 Scope 6.3.2 Sequence 6.3.3 Integration. 122 124 125 125 125 126 127 127 128 129. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 4.6 4.7. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(6) vi. . Topic 7. Topic 8. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 6.3.4 Continuity 6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum 6.4 Selection of Learning Experiences 6.4.1 What Are Learning Experiences? 6.4.2 Criteria for Selection of Learning Experiences 6.5 Curriculum Designs 6.5.1 Subject-Centred Designs 6.5.2 Learner-Centred Designs 6.5.3 Problem-Centred Designs Summary Key Terms References. 130 131 132 132 133 134 136 138 141 143 143 144. Curriculum Implementation 7.1 What is Curriculum Implementation? 7.2 Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process 7.3 Types of Curriculum Change 7.4 Resistance to Change 7.5 Case Study: Curriculum Reform and Implementation in Indonesia 7.6 Individuals Involved in Curriculum Implementation 7.6.1 Teachers 7.6.2 Students 7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters 7.6.4 Parents 7.7 Case Study: England' National Curriculum for Secondary Schools 7.8 Implementing Curriculum in The classroom Summary Key Terms References. 146 149 150 152 153. Curriculum Evaluation 8.1 Curriculum Evaluation 8.2 Formative and Summative Evaluation 8.2.1 Formative Evaluation 8.2.2 Summative Evaluation 8.3 Curriculum Evaluation Models 8.3.1 Context, Input, Process, Product Model (CIPP Model) 8.3.2 Case Study: Evaluation of a Programme on Technology Integration in Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools. 170 172 173 173 174 175. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM). 156 157 158 160 160 161 162 164 168 168 169. 175. 178.

(7) TABLE OF CONTENTS. . vii. 8.3.3 Stake's Countenance Model 8.3.4 Eisner's Connoisseurship Model 8.4 Phases of Curriculum Evaluation 8.5 Instrumentation for Curriculum Evaluation 8.5.1 Questionnaires and Checklists 8.5.2 Interviews 8.5.3 Observations 8.5.4 Documents 8.6 Case Study: Evaluation of a Mathematics Curriculum in South Africa Key Terms References. 179 180 183 183 184 184 185 185. Topic 9. Curriculum Issues and Trends 9.1 Some Challenges 9.1.1 Information Age 9.1.2 Changing Workplace 9.1.3 Influence of the Media 9.1.4 Participation in the Democratic Process 9.2 Curriculum Issues 9.2.1 Differentiated Curriculum For the Gifted 9.2.2 Compensatory Education Summary Key Terms References. 191 193 194 195 195 195 196 196 198 200 200 201. Topic 10. Fiture Directions 10.1 Character Education 10.2 Performance Assessment 10.3 Retooling Schools for the Future 10.3.1 Schools for All 10.3.2 Thinking Goes to School 10.3.3 Personalised Schools 10.3.4 Technology-Based Schools Summary Key Terms References. 202 202 203 207 208 211 214 215 216 217 217. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM). 188 189 190.

(8) viii . TABLE OF CONTENTS. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(9) COURSE GUIDE. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(10) x. . COURSE GUIDE. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(11) COURSE GUIDE. . xi. Table of Contents Welcome to HPGD1103. xii. What is this Course All About? Description of the Course Objectives of the Course. xii xii xii. How Can You Get the Most from this Course? Learning Package Course Synopsis Organisation of Course Content. xiii xiii xiii xiii. How Will You be Assessed? Assessment Format. xvi xvi. What Forms of Support Will You Get in Studying the Course? Seminars MyVLE Online Discussion Facilitator Library Resources Learner Connexxions. xvi xvi xvi xvii xvii xvii. Final Remarks. xvii. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(12) xii . COURSE GUIDE. WELCOME TO HPGD1103 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Welcome to HPGD1103 Curriculum Development. This is one of the required courses for the Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching programme at Open University Malaysia. You are encouraged to tap into your experiences as a teacher, instructor, lecturer or trainer to relate to the concepts and principles that will be discussed. This is a 3-credit course conducted over a semester of 14 weeks.. WHAT IS THE COURSE ALL ABOUT Description of the Course Educators are often faced with the task of conceptualising and developing different types of curriculum for various levels of education. An understanding of the development process would be useful for those involved in such activities. The course explores the various definitions of curriculum, followed by discussion on how philosophical beliefs, psychological perspectives, societal demands and the legacy of history impact the curriculum. Next, the curriculum development process is discussed with particular emphasis on curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. Finally, the course focuses on the issues and future trends in curriculum development in the context of todayÊs dynamic society.. Objectives of the Course The course aims to develop an understanding of the following areas: 1.. Compare, apply and disseminate the various definitions of curriculum;. 2.. Explain and formulate how philosophy, psychology, history and society impact curriculum;. 3.. Elaborate the four phases of the curriculum development process, namely; planning, design, implementation and evaluation as well as describe the phase that is most related to teaching and learning;. 4.. Evaluate the issues of curriculum development;. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(13) COURSE GUIDE. . xiii. 5.. Apply curriculum concepts, principles and theories to the teaching and learning environment; and. 6.. Demonstrate an ability to communicate ideas in written form.. HOW CAN YOU GET THE MOST OUT FROM THIS COURSE? Learning Package In this Learning Package, you are provided with THREE sets of course materials: 1.. The Course Guide, which you are currently reading;. 2.. The Course Assignment Guide (which describes the assignments to be submitted and the examination you have to sit for); and. 3.. The Course Content (consisting of 10 topics).. Please ensure that you have all of these materials at the start of the course.. Course Synopsis This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as follows: Topic 1 examines different definitions of curriculum, what is the hidden curriculum, approaches in viewing curriculum and a brief introduction to the curriculum development process. Topic 2 analyses four main philosophical beliefs (perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism) and how they influence curriculum. Topic 3 evaluates four psychological perspectives (behaviourism, cognitivism, humanism and constructivism) and how they influence curriculum. Topic 4 explores how societal forces and demands (culture, work, technology and globalisation) influence curriculum. The curriculum of the United States and Japan are examined to show how curriculum has changed over time. Topic 5 compares the curriculum development models of Tyler, Taba, Alexander and Saylor and the tasks involved at different levels of curriculum planning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(14) xiv . COURSE GUIDE. Topic 6 examines the criteria for content selection (significance, utility, learnability, feasibility and utility), the principles of content organisation (sequence, scope, integration and balance) and models of curriculum design (subject-matter, learner-centred and problem-centred). Topic 7 discusses curriculum implementation as a change process, the categories of curriculum change, the resistance to change, why people resist change and the role and responsibilities of people involved in curriculum implementation. Topic 8 compares three curriculum evaluation models (CIPP, Stakes Countenance model and Eisner's Connoisseurship model) and the techniques of data collection for decision making. Topic 9 critically evaluates different curriculum issues such as the impact of globalisation, the knowledge economy, national unity and citizenship education. Topic 10 focuses on character curriculum suggest possible scenarios of future in determining the curriculum.. Organisation of Course Content In distance learning, a print module such as this replaces the university lecturer. This is one of the main advantages of distance learning where specially designed study allows you to study at your own pace, anywhere and at anytime. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might assign something for you to read or do, the module tells you what to read, when to read and when to do the activities. Just as a lecturer might ask you questions in class, your module provides exercises for you to do at appropriate points. To help you read and understand the individual topics, numerous realistic examples support all definitions, concepts and theories. Diagrams and text are combined into a visually appealing, easy-to-read module. Throughout the course contents, diagrams, illustrations, tables and charts are used to reinforce important points and simplify the more complex concepts. The module has adopted the following features in each topic:. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(15) COURSE GUIDE. . xv. LEARNING OUTCOMES This is a listing of what you should be able to do after successful completion of a topic. In other words, whether you are be able to explain, compare, evaluate, distinguish, list, describe, relate and so forth. You should use these indicators to guide your study. When you have finished a topic, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the learning outcomes or be able to do what is required of you. If you make a habit of doing this, you will improve your chances of understanding the contents of the course..  INTRODUCTION Lists the headings and sub-headings of each topic to provide an overview of the contents of the topic and prepare you for the major concepts to be studied and learned.. ACTIVITY These are situations drawn from research projects to show how knowledge of the principles of research methodology may be applied to real-world situations. The activities illustrate key points and concepts dealt with in each topic.. SELF-CHECK Questions are interspersed at strategic points in the topic to encourage review of what you have just read and retention of recently learned material. The answers to these questions are found in the paragraphs before the questions. This is to test immediately whether you understand the few paragraphs of text you have read. Working through these tests will help you determine whether you understand the topic and prepare you for the assignments and the examination.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(16) xvi . COURSE GUIDE. The main ideas of each topic are listed in brief sentences to provide a review of the content. You should ensure that you understand every statement listed. If you do not, go back to the topic and find out what you do not know.. At the end of each topic a list of articles and topics of books is provided that is directly related to the contents of the topic. As far as possible the articles and books suggested for further reading will be available in OUMÊs Digital Library which you can access and OUMÊs Library. Also, relevant internet resources are made available to enhance your understanding of selected curriculum concepts and principles as applied in real-world situations.. HOW WILL YOU BE ASSESSED? Assessment Format Pleas refer to myVLE.. WHAT FORMS OF SUPPORT WILL YOU GET IN STUDYING THE COURSE? Seminars There are 15 hours of seminars or face-to-face interaction supporting the course. This consists of or FIVE tutorial sessions of 3 hours each. You will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the names and phone number of your facilitator, as soon as you are allocated into a tutorial group.. MyVLE Online Discussion Besides the face-to-face tutorial sessions, you have the support of online discussions. You should interact with other students and your facilitator using MyVLE. Your contributions to the online discussion will greatly enhance your Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(17) COURSE GUIDE.  xvii. understanding of course content, how to go about doing the assignment and preparation for the examinations.. Facilitator Your facilitator will mark your assignments and provide assistance to you during the course. Do not hesitate to discuss during the seminar sessions or online if: . You do not understand any part of the course content or the assigned readings.. . You have difficulty with the self-tests and activities.. . You have a question or problem with the assignments.. Library Resources The Digital Library has a large collection of books and journals which you can access using your student ID.. Learner Connexxions This online bulletin provides interesting and relevant information to help you along the programme. There are can be useful study hints and you can read about the experiences of other distant learners.. FINAL REMARKS Once again, welcome to the course. To maximise your gain from this course you should try at all times relate what you are studying with the real-world of classrooms, schools and learners. Look at the environment in your institution and ask yourself whether they provide opportunities for research. Most of the ideas, concepts and principles you learn in this course have practical applications. It is important to realise that much we do in education and training has to be based on sound theoretical foundations. The contents of this course provide the principles for doing research in education whether it is in a school, college, university or training organisation. We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it interesting, useful and relevant towards your development as a professional.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(18) xviii . COURSE GUIDE. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(19) COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(20) xx.  COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(21) COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE. . xxi. Table of Contents Introduction. xxii. Academic Writing (a) Plagiarism?  What is Plagiarism?  How Can You Avoid Plagiarism?. xxii xxii xxii xxiii. (b). Documenting Sources Ć Direct Ć Indirect. xxiii xxiii xxiii. (c). Referencing Ć Journal Ć Online Journal Ć Webpage Ć Book Ć Article in a Book Ć Printed Newspaper. xxiv xxiv xxiv xxiv xxiv xxiv xxiv. Details about Assignments  Facilitator-Marked Assignment (FMA)  General Criteria for Assessment of FMA. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM). xxi xxi xxv.

(22) xxii.  COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE. INTRODUCTION The Assignment Guide provides an outline on how you will be assessed in this course during the semester. It contains details of the Facilitator-marked assignments, final examination and participation required for the course. One element in the assessment strategy of the course is that all students and facilitators should have the same information about the answers to be assessed. Therefore, this guide also contains the marking criteria that facilitators will use in assessing your work. Please read through the whole guide at the beginning of the course.. ACADEMIC WRITING (a). Plagiarism (i). What is Plagiarism? Any written assignment (essays, projects, take-home examinations, etc.) submitted by a student must not be deceptive regarding the abilities, knowledge, or amount of work contributed by the student. There are many ways that this rule can be violated. Among them are:. Paraphrases:. The student paraphrases a closely reasoned argument of an author without acknowledging that he or she has done so. (Clearly, all our knowledge is derived from somewhere, but detailed arguments from clearly identifiable sources must be acknowledged.). Outright plagiarism:. Large sections of the paper are simply copied from other sources, and are not acknowledged as quotations.. Other sources:. Often include essays written by other students or sold by unscrupulous organisations. Quoting from such papers is perfectly legitimate if quotation marks are used and the source is cited.. Works by others:. Taking credit deliberately or not deliberately for works produced by another without giving proper acknowledgement. Works include photographs, charts, graphs, drawings, statistics, video-clips, audio-clips, verbal exchanges such as interviews or lectures, performances on television and texts printed on the web.. Duplication:. The student submits the same essay to two or more courses. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(23) COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE. (ii). (b). . xxiii. How Can you Avoid Plagiarism?  Insert quotation marks around Âcopy and pasteÊ clause, phrase, sentence, paragraph and cite the original source. . Paraphrase clause, phrase, sentence or paragraph in your own words and cite your source.. . Adhere to the APA (American Psychological Association) stylistic format, whichever applicable, when citing a source and when writing out the bibliography or reference page.. . Attempt to write independently without being overly dependent of information from anotherÊs original works.. . Educate yourself on what may be considered as common knowledge (no copyright necessary), public domain (copyright has expired or not protected under copyright law), or copyright (legally protected).. Documenting Sources Whenever you quote, paraphrase, summarise, or otherwise refer to the work of another, you are required to cite its source parenthetical documentation. Offered here are some of the most commonly cited forms of material.. . Direct. Simply having a thinking skill is no assurance that children will use it. In order for such skills to become part of day-today behaviour, they must be cultivated in an environment that value and sustains them. „Just as childrenÊs musical skills will likely lay fallow in an environment that doesnÊt encourage music, learnerÊs thinking skills tend to languish in a culture that doesnÊt encourage thinking‰ (Tishman, Perkins & Jay, 1995, p.5). . Indirect. According to Wurman (1988), the new disease of the 21st century will be information anxiety, which has been defined as the ever-widening gap between what one understands and what one thinks one should understand.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(24) xxiv. (c).  COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE. Referencing All sources that you cite in your paper should be listed in the Reference section at the end of your paper. HereÊs how you should do your Reference.. Journal. DuFour, R. (2002). The learning-centred principal: Educational Leadership, 59(8), 12-15.. Online Journal. Evnine, S. J. (2001). The universality of logic: On the connection between rationality and logical ability [Electronic version]. Mind, 110, 335-367.. Webpage. National Park Service. (2003, February 11). Abraham Lincoln birthplace national historic site. Retrieved February 13, 2003, from http://www.nps.gov/abli/. Book. Naisbitt, J., & Aburdence, M. (1989). Megatrends 2000. London: Pan Books.. Article in a Book. Nickerson, R. (1987). Why teach thinking? In J. B. Baron & R.J. Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 27-37.. Printed Newspaper. Holden, S. (1998, May 16). Frank Sinatra dies at 82: Matchless stylist of pop. The New York Times, pp. A1, A22-A23.. DETAILS ABOUT ASSIGNMENTS Facilitator-Marked Assignment (FMA) You will be able to complete the assignment from the information and materials contained in your suggested readings and module. However, it is desirable at graduate-level education to demonstrate that you have read and researched more widely than the required minimum. Using a variety of references will give you a broader perspective and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject. When you have completed the assignment, submit it to your facilitator. Make sure that your assignment reaches the facilitator on or before the deadline.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(25) COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE. . xxv. General Criteria for Assessment of FMA In general, your facilitator will be expecting you to write clearly, using correct spelling (please use your spell checker) and grammar. Your facilitator will be looking for the following:. (i). That you have critically thought about issues raised in the course.. (ii). That you have considered and appreciated different points of view, including those in the course.. (iii) That you give your own views and opinions. (iv) That you state your argument clearly with supporting evidence and proper referencing of sources.. (v). That you have drawn on your own experiences.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(26) xxvi.  COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(27) Top i c. 1. X. What is Curriculum?. LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this chapter, you be able to: 1. Define what is curriculum; 2. Compare the various definitions of curriculum proposed by different scholars; 3. Explain what is hidden curriculum; 4. Differentiate between the three approaches to curriculum; 5. Identify the foundations of curriculum; 6. Discuss the connection between curriculum and instruction; 7. Describe the curriculum development process; and 8. Argue whether curriculum is a discipline.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(28) 2. X TOPIC 1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. X INTRODUCTION. NEWS PAPER HEADLINES • • • • • • • • •. „Homework should be made more meaningful‰ „Students canÊt read properly after 11 years of schooling‰ „Students are bored with studying the same thing each year‰ „Teachers are unable to complete the syllabuses because too much time is spent on co-curricular activities‰ „Teachers are reluctant to teach beyond what is in the curriculum, considering it a waste of time‰ „Thinking skills of students need to be developed‰ „Parents passing the responsibility of educating their children to teachers‰ „Sports is being neglected in schools‰ „Environmental education should be taught‰. You would have probably come across these headlines in newspapers and magazines. These headlines are an indication of societyÊs concern with what is going on in schools and in particular the curriculum. It should be remembered that a curriculum is contract between society and those in power stating how its Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(29) TOPIC 1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. W. 3. next generation of young people will be educated. Hence the general public have a right to question how schools are preparing its next generation of citizens. As society becomes more educated, more of its members are keen in expressing their views on various issues regarding what are schools doing and what is taught in schools. Sometimes it is tempting to ask whether society ever come to a consensus on what it wants schools to do. Some sectors of the population are demanding that schools teach for the mastery of the facts, concepts and principles of a discipline, while others are calling for reducing content and placing more emphasis on the development of critical and creative thinking. Still others feel that schools are not paying enough attention towards developing the character of students. It appears that society is in a state of confusion not knowing what it wants of its schools. However, what may be defined as confusion is in reality dynamism because curriculum is a reflection of our values, choices and perspectives in differing contexts. As society changes so will the curriculum because it is a reflection of society at a particular point in time. For example, during colonial times, education in Malaysia was confined to producing clerks and office assistants for the English administrative system. Whether we consider curriculum narrowly as a listing of subjects to be taught in schools or broadly as all learning experiences that individuals acquire while in school, there is no denying that curriculum affects us all. Curriculum is the concern of everyone, whether they are teachers, academics, students, parents, politicians, businessmen, professionals, government officials or the person on the street.. ACTIVITY 1.1 1.. Discuss any 3 headlines listed above that you agree with. Why?. 2.. Locate and report other concerns about the curriculum that you have you come across?. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(30) 4. X TOPIC 1. 1.1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM. Just like most things in education, there is no agreed upon definition of ÂcurriculumÊ. The word originates from the Latin word currere referring to the oval track upon which Roman chariots raced (see picture). The New International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of a course in an educational institution or by a department while The Oxford English Dictionary defines curriculum as courses taught in schools or universities. Curriculum means different things to different people. Most people, including educators equate curriculum with the syllabus (Do you agree?) while a few regard curriculum as all the teaching-learning experiences a student encounters while in school. Since the early 20th century when Franklin Bobbitt dubbed the Father of Curriculum wrote his book The Curriculum in 1918, various theoreticians and practitioners have proposed definitions of curriculum. Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as „the planned and guided learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learnersÊ continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence‰ (p.13). Ć. Schubert (1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society.. Ć. Pratt (1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth.. Ć. Goodlad and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behaviour changes in students as a result of planned activities and Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(31) TOPIC 1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. W. 5. includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school.. Summary of Various Interpretations of Curriculum Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć. Ć. Ć. Curriculum is: that which is taught in school a set of subjects content a programme of studies a set of materials sequence of courses a set of performance objectives a course of study everything that goes on within a school everything that is planned by school personnel that which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the school a series of experiences undergone by learners in school that which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling. Source: Peter F. Oliva, Developing the Curriculum. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. 1982. p. 5. Ć. Cronbleth (1992) defines curriculum as answering three questions: what knowledge, skills and values are most worthwhile? Why are they most worthwhile? How should the young acquire them?. Ć. Grundy (1987) defines curriculum as a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(32) 6. X TOPIC 1. Ć. Hass (1987) provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes „all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice‰ (p.5).. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. SELF-CHECK 1.1 1.. Identify the FIVE common features of a curriculum mentioned in most of the definitions given by scholars in the field (exclude Peter Oliva).. 2.. Select SIX interpretations of the curriculum summarised by Peter Oliva which you think gives a comprehensive definition of curriculum.. Are you confused with the different definitions? Well, donÊt be! It is not necessarily a bad thing having numerous definitions of curriculum. The variety of definitions demonstrates the dynamism of the field because it reflects the philosophical beliefs, conceptions of human learning, pedagogical strategies, political experiences and cultural background of the society the curriculum is planned for (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). Though much time may be spent on defining curriculum, it may be time well spent because it encourages exploration of many possibilities. One should be aware that if a curriculum is too narrowly defined there is the tendency and likelihood to omit, ignore or miss relevant factors related to teaching and learning because they are not part of the written plan. On the other hand, if they are too broadly defined, it would difficult to implement because it may be open to different interpretations. This will make the task of evaluating achievement of the goals and objectives of the programme more difficult. Despite varying definitions of curriculum, there seems to be a consensus that it is a statement: Ć. of what students should know (knowledge or content),. Ć. be able to do (skills),. Ć. how it is taught (instruction),. Ć. how it is measured (assessment), and. Ć. and how the educational system is organised (context).. It is a structured plan of intended learning outcomes, involving knowledge, skills, behaviour and associated learning experiences organised as a sequence of events that a student acquires through education and training. How we conceive of the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(33) TOPIC 1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. W. 7. curriculum is important because our conceptions and ways of reasoning about curriculum reflect how we think, study and act on the education made available to students. In short, how we define the curriculum reflects our assumptions about the world (Cornbleth, 1990).. 1.2. THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM. You may have heard of the phrase „hidden curriculum‰. What is it? The phrase hidden curriculum was coined by the sociologist Philip Jackson in his book Life in Classrooms written in 1968. He drew attention to the idea that schools did more than simply transmit knowledge from one generation to another. Students learn things that are not actually taught in the formal curriculum. It could be viewed as the entire range of educational experiences promoted by schools and teachers through practices that are not necessarily written down. As pointed out by Doll (1992), „every school has a planned, formal acknowledged curriculum, but there is also has an unplanned informal and hidden one that must be considered‰ (p.5). The planned, formal curriculum focuses on goals, objectives, subject matter and organisation of instruction. The unplanned, informal curriculum deals with socio-psychological interaction among students, teachers and administrators, especially in relation to their feelings, attitudes and behaviours If we only consider the planned curriculum, the official curriculum stated in a written document, we ignore both the numerous positive and negative consequences that can result from the planned curriculum. Oftentimes, we fail to realise the power of the hidden curriculum, which may not be written but will certainly be learned by students. For example, they learn even without being formally taught: Ć. about „the rules of the game‰ in the school canteen, in the playground, in the corridors of the school and so forth,. Ć. the specific relationships between senior and junior students, between male and female students, cliques of students,. Ć. how order is created and maintained in the classroom, the way individual teachers interpret the behaviour of students, and. Ć. the way teachers and principals or headmaster have different expectations of students based on interpretations of behaviour in class.. The hidden curriculum involves learning such things as how to respond to and cope with authority, how to get on with others, how to pass the time, how deal Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(34) 8. X TOPIC 1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. with boredom, how to establish priorities and how to conform to the expectations of teachers and their peers.. SELF-CHECK 1.2 1.. What is the hidden curriculum?. 2.. Why is the hidden curriculum important in education?. 3.. Give examples of the hidden curriculum other than those stated in the text.. 1.3. CURRICULUM APPROACHES. If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the field, there are three ways of approaching a curriculum (see Figure 1.1). First is to approach it as content or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. Second is to approach it as a product or the learning outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to approach it as a process or what actually happens in the classroom when the curriculum is practiced.. 1.3.1. Curriculum as Content. It is quite common for people to equate a curriculum with the syllabus which is a concise document listing the topics of a subject. If you have experience in preparing students for national examinations, you will be familiar with such documents. What do they contain? Perhaps, a list of topics, the concepts to be mastered and some suggestions on how the topics are to be taught. For example, a primary school mathematics curriculum will consist of topics on addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight and so forth. A syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of the topics or the order in which they are to be studied. But, there is tendency for teachers to follow the sequence prescribed in the syllabus. In most cases teachers follow the logical structure of selected textbooks simply because the textbooks have been written to match closely the syllabus. For example, in secondary school geography involving the study of countries or regions, textbooks tend to begin with physical geography such as relief, climate, vegetation followed by economic activities such as agriculture, mining, industries, urbanization and so forth. It has been suggested that if one adopts the content approach to curriculum, focus will be on the syllabus and the body of knowledge to be transmitted or 'delivered' to students using appropriate teaching methods. When curriculum is equated Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(35) TOPIC 1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. W. 9. with content, there is the likelihood to limit instruction to the acquisition of facts, concepts and principles of the subject matter transmitted.. Figure 1.1: Approaches to curriculum. SELF-CHECK 1.3 1.. What do you mean when curriculum is approached as content?. 2.. Why is it a common approach of viewing curriculum?. 1.3.2. Curriculum as Product. Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, it has also been viewed as a product. In other words, what is it that is desired of students having been taught using a curriculum. Franklin Bobbitt (1918) in his book The Curriculum, stated that; Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities. However numerous and diverse they may be for any social class they can be discovered. This requires only that one go out into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of which their affairs consist. These will show the abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men need. These will be the objectives of the curriculum. They will be numerous, definite and particularised. The curriculum will then be that series of experiences which children and youth must have by way of obtaining those objectives. (p: 42). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(36) 10 X TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. According to Bobbitt, education should prepare people for life with detailed attention to what people need to know in order to work and live their lives. Go out into the world and see for yourselves what society needs („the abilities,. attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men [women] need‰ according to Bobbitt). Curriculum should not to be the result of 'armchair speculation' but the result of systematic study of society. The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to function effectively and efficiently. Ralph Tyler (1949) shares BobbittÊs approach to curriculum when he said that the real purpose of education is to bring about significant changes in students' pattern of behaviour [We will examine TylerÊs view in more detail in Chapter 5]. It is important that any statement of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. The attraction of this way of approaching curriculum is that it is systematic and has considerable organising power. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives which provide a clear notion of outcomes or desired products so that content and teaching methods may be organised and the results evaluated. In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller units („numerous, definite and particularise⁄series of experiences which children and youth must have ‰ according to Bobbitt). The result, as many of you will have experienced, can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. This can lead to a focus on the parts rather than the whole; on the trivial, rather than the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed the course or has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is somehow sidelined. SELF-CHECK 1.4 1.. How is curriculum as product different from curriculum as. content? 2.. What should be the overall purpose of a curriculum according to Bobbitt and Tyler?. 3.. How are these objectives to be derived?. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(37) TOPIC 1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. W 11. ACTIVITY 1.2 Criticisms of the „Curriculum as Product‰ Approach There are a number of disagreements with the Curriculum as product approach. The first is that the curriculum can become too technical and sequential. The tendency is for the curriculum to exist prior to and outside the learning experiences which takes much away from learners and end up with little or no voice. They are told what they must learn and how they will do it. The success or failure of a curriculum is judged on the basis of whether pre-specified changes occur in the behaviour of learners. If the curriculum is closely followed it might limit creativity and turn educators into technicians. Also, since the approach emphasises measurability, it implies that behaviour can be objectively, mechanistically measured. There are obvious dangers here; there always has to be some uncertainty about what is being measured. It is often very difficult to judge what the impact of particular experiences has been. Sometimes it is years after the event that we come to appreciate something of what has happened. Source: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice, The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.. 1.. To what extent do you agree with the criticisms of the curriculum as product approach?. 2.. What are some advantages of this approach?. 1.3.3. Curriculum as Process. We have seen that the curriculum as content approach emphasises the content to be transmitted while curriculum as product approach is focussed on the setting of instructional or behavioural objectives. Another way of looking at curriculum is via process. Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers, students and knowledge. It is what actually happens in the classroom such as the questions asked by the teacher, the learning activities students engage in and so forth. It is an active process with emphasis on the context in which the processes occurs. Stenhouse (1975), used the analogy of the a recipe in a cookbook which teachers translate into practice in the classroom. Like a recipe it can be varied according to taste. So can a curriculum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(38) 12 X TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. According to the process approach curriculum is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a syllabus of content to be covered. The classroom is seen as a laboratory in which the teacher is like a scientist who tests the ideas stated in the curriculum. The teacher translates an educational idea into a hypothesis that is tested in the classroom. It involves critical testing rather than acceptance. The focus is on finding out those processes which enhance (if it is successful) or hinder (if it goes wrong) a personÊs learning. So, the curriculum is not a finished product but rather the proposed educational ideas that have to been verified in the classroom by teachers. So, you may not know what you are going to get and may differ from what has been specified in the curriculum document [ÂLife is like a box of chocolates, you never know what youÊre gonna to getÊ ă Forest Gump]. This differs from the product approach where the desired behaviours have been pre-determined or more or less fixed and applies to all learners. The process approach to curriculum treats the learners are not as objects to be acted upon. They have a say in what is going on in the teaching-learning sessions. The focus is on interaction and attention shifts from teaching to learning. On the other hand, the product model, by having a pre-specified plan or programme, tends to direct attention to teaching. A process approach to curriculum theory and practice, as argued by Grundy (1987), tends towards making the process of learning the central concern of the teacher with emphasis on thinking and meaning-making.. 1.4. FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM. Debate is still continuing as to the definition of curriculum. Despite this lack of consensus, it has not hindered institutions, school districts, states and nations continually developing and improving curriculum in schools, colleges, universities and training organisations. Imagine what would have happened if we had to wait for an agreed upon definition of curriculum. The design and development of curriculum is a team effort involving curriculum planners, curriculum developers, teachers, academicians, education officers, administrators, community members and may others. They decide the goals of the curriculum, what content to include, how it should be organised, suggest how it should be taught and how to determine whether efforts have been successful. To help them make these decisions, they have turned to philosophy, psychology, sociology and history. These have been accepted as the foundations of a curriculum [We shall discuss the influence of these disciplines in detail in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 respectively]. These disciplines have produced a vast amount of knowledge that provide guidelines for people interested in developing curriculum. For example, from Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(39) TOPIC 1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. W 13. philosophy has evolved numerous beliefs as on how people should be educated and what knowledge is worthwhile. These beliefs have provided curriculum developers with guidelines on how they should go about designing curriculum. From psychology, various perspectives on how humans learn have been proposed. This knowledge is of great significance since a curriculum is a plan on what individuals are supposed to learn. Decades of research have provided insight into the human psyche which curriculum developers have tapped into to guide decisions on how a body of content is to be taught and acquired at different levels of human development. The disciplines of sociology, economics, culture, and politics provide an insight into society. A curriculum is a reflection of societal values and beliefs it serves. It is usually a response to what society wants and desires. [Refer to the newspaper headlines listed at the beginning of the chapter]. The community plays an important role in influencing what is taught in the classroom. Finally, many curriculum plans are an evolution from earlier times and curriculum developers refer to historical events to better understand the decisions made at different points of time. It provides a background for better understanding present day curriculum development efforts [We will examine the curriculum of early American and Japan in Chapter 4 to understand how and why curriculum changes with the evolution of society]. ACTIVITY 1.3 Problems with the „Curriculum as Process Approach‰ •. Teachers who want uniformity in what is taught will find this approach problematic because the focus is on the learner. So there will be different content and methods of delivery to cater to individual needs.. •. Examinations would be difficult to conduct because learners would be learning different things and at a different pace. It would not be fair to have one examination as you might not be assessing the real ability of a learner.. •. Examinations do not pay attention to the context in which learning takes place and so some students might be disadvantaged.. •. Teachers implementing a curriculum using the process approach have to believe that learning is the making of meaning and construction of knowledge. If teachers are not convinced this should be the aim of education, then the process approach will not succeed.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(40) 14 X TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. 1.. To what extent do you agree with the problems with the „Curriculum as Process Approach‰?. 2.. Do you think the curriculum as process approach would be easier to implement if there were no centrally controlled or national examinations?. 3.. What is the main difference between the curriculum as product and curriculum as process approachÊ? Source: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice, The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education.www.infed.org/biblio/b-urric.htm.. 1.5. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT. Curriculum development is a process involving many different people and procedures. Thus, it is usually linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases: curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. [We will discuss each. phase in detail in Chapter 5, 6, 7 and 8. If you were to specialise in curriculum, then each of these phases would be taught as a separate course by itself]. The phases of the process provide us with guideposts and structure to clarify our thinking. The phases can be graphically or pictorially illustrated and are conceived in technical terms ă with the assumption that one must be knowledgeable of the process to fully appreciate and understand. DonÊt worry! By the end of Chapter 8, you will fully understand the technical terms associated with each of these phases of curriculum development. Many curriculum development models have been proposed. Generally, most models involve four phases. First is, curriculum planning which involves decisions about the philosophy of education and the aims of education. Having decided on the philosophical beliefs, curriculum goals and objectives are derived which are later translated into the classroom as desired learning outcomes among students taught. The second phase is curriculum design which refers to the way curriculum is conceptualised and involves the selection and organisation of content, and the selection and organisation of learning experiences or activities. Among the issues that have to be resolved is deciding Âwhat knowledge is of most worthÊ, Âhow should the content be organised to maximise learningÊ. The third phase is curriculum implementation in the classroom setting. It involves getting people to practice the ideas in the curriculum, providing them with the necessary resources, training and encouragement. The fourth phase is curriculum evaluation which is determining the extent to which the efforts in implementing Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(41) TOPIC 1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. W 15. the ideas of the curriculum have been successful. It involves identification of factors that have hindered implementation as well as success stories; and most important whether students have benefited from the programme.. 1.6. CURRICULUM AS A DISCIPLINE. Can curriculum be considered a discipline just like sociology, economics, biology or political science? Graduate students have been taking courses in curriculum planning, curriculum evaluation, primary school curriculum and so forth in various universities. Many graduate schools of education offer doctoral specialisations in curriculum and instruction, better known as ÂC&IÊ. To arrive at a decision as to whether an area of study is a discipline, one must first ask the question, ÂWhat are the characteristics of a discipline?Ê.If we know the characteristics of a discipline, than maybe we can decide if ÂcurriculumÊ is a discipline. According to Oliva (1982), a discipline has the following characteristics: •. A discipline should have an organised set of theoretical principles.. •. A discipline encompasses a body of knowledge and skills pertinent to that discipline.. •. A discipline has its theoreticians and its practitioners.. The field of curriculum has its set of principles. For example the term ÂcurriculumÊ itself is a concept describing very complex ideas. In curriculum planning there are principles such as educational philosophy, curriculum goals and learning objectives which are applied in developing programmes for school, universities and training centres. In curriculum design, the principles of scope, sequence and balance are used in the organisation of content to be taught. The field of curriculum has its own body of knowledge and skills, though much of it has been borrowed from a number of pure disciplines. For example, in the selection of content (What to teach?), curriculum has relied on the principles, knowledge and skills from psychology, philosophy and sociology. In the organisation of content, curriculum has drawn from the fields of management and organisational theory. In the implementation of curriculum, various ideas from systems theory, organisational behaviour and communication theory have been used to enhance effectiveness. For example, research in organisational behaviour has been used to bring about change among teachers, educational administrators and the community. Has the field of curriculum its own body of knowledge and skills? Applying the ideas drawn from the different disciplines and through experimentation it has generated its own body of knowledge and skills, or at least, new interpretations of principles as applied in the educational setting. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(42) 16 X TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. The field of curriculum has its list of theoreticians and practitioners and they include curriculum planners, professors of curriculum, curriculum developers and so forth who are termed as curriculum specialists. These specialists are wellversed in areas relating to curriculum, such as the history and origin of a curriculum (to know of earlier successes or failure), curriculum planning and how a particular curriculum is to be implemented in schools successfully. The specialist is well-informed about how students learn, how teachers react to change and obstacles to improvement. The curriculum specialist generates new knowledge by recombining existing programmes, adapting approaches and constructing new curriculum. [Perhaps, after completing this course you might be. more convinced that curriculum meets the requirement of a discipline or maybe not!] SELF-CHECK 1.5 1.. Why do curriculum developers rely on the knowledge and skills of other discipline?. 2.. How would you justify the field of curriculum to be a discipline?. 1.7. CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION. Now that you have an idea of what is a curriculum; what is the relationship between curriculum and instruction? Simply put, curriculum is what to be taught while instruction is how it is taught. The relationship between curriculum and instruction is a partnership. We may think of the curriculum as a plan stipulating the content to be taught along with the learning experiences to be included. Instruction may be thought of as methodology, the teaching act and assessing of achievement. In other words, it is putting into practice what has been planned. Oliva (1982) described curriculum and instruction as two entities. You could have a situation in which the two entities are apart, called the dualistic model (see Figure 1.2a). What takes place in the classroom under the direction of the teacher has little relationship to what is stated in the curriculum plan. Planners ignore what teachers are doing and vice-versa. The curriculum or the instructional process may change without affecting one another. This separation will do serious harm to each other. On other occasions, curriculum and instruction are mutually interdependent as shown in the concentric model (see Figure 1.2b). In this model curriculum assumes the superordinate position while instruction is subordinate; that is, instruction is a subsystem of curriculum which is itself a Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(43) TOPIC 1. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. W 17. subsystem of the whole system of education. This model implies a system that is hierarchical, with curriculum dominating instruction. Instruction is not a separate entity but a very dependent portion of the curriculum entity. In other situations, curriculum and instruction may be separate entities with a continuing circular relationship, called the circular model (see Figure 1.2c). Curriculum makes a continuous impact on instruction and similarly instruction impacts on curriculum. This model assumes that instructional decisions are made after curriculum decisions are made. But, these curriculum decisions are later modified when they have been implemented and evaluated in the classroom. This process is continues, repeated and never-ending.. Figure 1.2: Curriculum and instruction relationship Source: Peter Oliva, Developing the curriculum. 1982. Boston: Little Brown & Co. pp.12-13. Of all the models, the cyclical model seems to the best alternative as it emphasises the need for a close working relationship between implementers and planners. Though curriculum and instruction may be different entities they are Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(44) 18 X TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. interdependent and cannot function in isolation. It is impossible to plan everything that happens in the classroom in the curriculum document. It should be accepted that what is planned on paper may not work exactly because the numerous factors operating in the classroom are impossible to predetermine. The constant feedback from the classroom as to what works and what does not work has to be recycled to curriculum developers so necessary adjustments and modifications can be made to the curriculum plan. This may explain the need for pilot-testing a curriculum before it is widely implemented.. •. Curriculum is a statement of what students should know, be able to do, how it is taught, how it is measured, and how the educational system is organised.. •. Curriculum can be approached as content (knowledge, skills and values), product (desired learning outcomes) and process (interactions in the classroom).. •. Curriculum development is a process involving planning, designing, implementation and evaluation.. •. Curriculum can be considered a discipline because it has an organised set of theoretical principles, it includes a body of knowledge and skills and has its theoreticians and its practitioners.. •. The relationship between curriculum and instruction is interdependent, continuous, repeated and never-ending.. Curriculum Curriculum and instruction Curriculum as a discipline Curriculum as: • content • product • process. Curriculum development • dualistic model • cyclical model • concentric model • Hidden curriculum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(45) TOPIC 1. 1.. WHAT IS CURRICULUM?. W 19. Write down your definition of curriculum. (a). What does your definition of curriculum include?. (b). Does it include a process? . . a product? . . materials for teaching? . . . an approach to education and methods of instruction that fosters certain values and attitudes?. (c). Compare your definition with the definitions given by scholars in the field. How similar or different is yours?. 2.. „The curriculum on paper and the curriculum in action‰. What do you understand by these statement?. 3.. „The curriculum is too examination-oriented and children are deprived of their childhood‰. Discuss.. 4.. „An over-loaded curriculum is a concern of many teachers. Increasingly, teachers are feeling that there is not enough time to cover all the traditional material being put into the curriculum‰. (a). To what extent do you agree?. (b). Suggest solutions to overcome the problem.. Alistair, R. (200). Curriculum: Construction and critique. London: Falmer Press. Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [available at eBrary]. Woods, R. N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London: Routledge. Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [available at eBrary] Ornstein, A. & Hunkins F. (1998), Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 1: The field of curriculum. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products. Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice. The encyclopaedia of informal education,www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.. The hidden curriculum. www.sociology.org.uk/tece1tl.htm. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(46) Topic. X. 2. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum. LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define what is philosophy; 2. Define what is educational philosophy; 3. Compare the philosophical beliefs of perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism; 4. Explain the influence of the four educational philosophies on curriculum; 5. List the main features of the educational philosophies of Farabi, Confucius and Tagore; and 6. Discuss the implications of the philosophies of Farabi, Confucius and Tagore on curriculum.. X INTRODUCTION. In topic 1, we discussed the different definitions of curriculum. We also briefly discussed the foundations of curriculum, the curriculum development process and the relationship between curriculum and instruction. In this topic and the following two topics, we will examine in greater detail the foundations of Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(47) TOPIC 2. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM. W. 21. curriculum. In other words, how different traditional disciplines have influenced curriculum. A curriculum is developed based on certain beliefs and orientations, conceptions of learning and the demands of society. In this topic, we will focus on the philosophical beliefs that influence curriculum and in Topic 3 we will focus on the psychological perspectives that impact curriculum. In Topic 4 we will discuss the role of society in determining what is to be included in a curriculum as well as the legacy of significant historical events. 'Consult Private Sector on Curriculum' Kuala Lumpur, Sat-The Prime Minister wants education officials to consult the private sector when drawing curriculum for secondary and tertiary level education to produce the right people for the job market. Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi said that private sectorÊs manpower needs and future trends would allow adjustments to be made to the current curriculum.. "Consultation to get views of the private sector should be for Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia-level and onwards (Year 11 onwards). This approach is important because of the rapid and dynamic industrial development taking shape. We cannot run away from supplying a workforce needed by industries for nation building". Abdullah said after opening the twoday second Malay Education Congress today.. The curriculum must see that those entering the work market after completing their secondary education, diploma or degree courses are equipped with knowledge that is useful to the nature of their jobs, he added. Source: New Straits Times, March, 27, 2005. ACTIVITY 2.1 Read the newspaper report on ÂConsult Private Sector on CurriculumÊ 1.. What do you understand by the phrase "equipped with knowledge that is useful to the nature of their jobs"? Give specific examples.. 2.. "We cannot run away from supplying a workforce needed by industries for nation building". To what extent do you agree that this should be the role and functions of schools and universities?. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(48) 22. X TOPIC 2. 2.1. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?. LetÊs begin with philosophy. The word philosophy is a combination of the Greek word "philos" (love) and "Sophia" (wisdom) which translated means "love of wisdom". Philosophers are people who seek after wisdom and curious about the world seeking to understand the nature of things. Oftentimes, the result of philosophy is not so much putting forward new philosophies or propositions but making existing philosophies or propositions clearer. Philosophers study the works of other philosophers and state anew what others have put forward as well as proposing new philosophies. A philosopher can be a person who knows philosophy even though he or she engages in little or no philosophising. Philosophy also refers to the collective works of other philosophers. It can mean the academic exploration of various questions raised by philosophers. For centuries philosophers have been interested with such concepts as morality, goodness, knowledge, truth, beauty and our very existence. Among the questions philosophers ask are: •. What is truth? Why do we say a statement is correct or false?. •. How do we know what we know?. •. What is reality? What things can be describe as real?. •. What is the nature of thought and thinking?. •. What is special about being a human being?. •. Is there anything special about being alive at all?. •. What is ethics?. •. What does it mean when something is right or wrong; good or bad?. •. What is beauty?. •. How do beautiful things differ from others?. Philosophers use certain methods of inquiry. They often frame their questions as problems or puzzles about subjects they find interesting and confusing. Popularly, the word philosophy may also refer to someone's perspective on life (philosophy of life) or the underlying principles or method of achieving something.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(49) TOPIC 2. 2.2. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM. W. 23. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. Now, let's examine a branch of philosophy, namely; philosophy of education. What is philosophy of education? Philosophy of education is the study of questions such as "What is education?" ÂWhat is the purpose of education?‰, "What does it mean to know something?" "What is the relationship between education and society?" The philosophy of education recognises that the development of a civil society depends on the education of the young as responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens which is a challenging task requiring deep understanding of ethical principles, moral values, political theory, aesthetics and economics; not to mention an understanding of children themselves. Most of the prominent philosophers in the last 2000 years were not philosophers of education but have at some point considered and written on the philosophy of education. Among them are Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Dewey, Adler, Confucius, Al Farabi, Tagore and many others [we will discuss their contributions to education later in the topic]. These philosophers have been key voices in philosophy of education and have contributed to our basic understanding of what education is and can be. They have also provided powerful critical perspectives revealing the problems in education.. 2.3. PHILOSOPHY AND CURRICULUM. What is the connection between philosophy and curriculum? For example, when you propose the teaching of a particular body of knowledge, course or subject, you will be asked, "What is your philosophy for introducing that content?" If you are unable to answer the question, you may not be able to convince others to accept your proposal. Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision making and is the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum. Philosophy becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom. "What subjects are of value?", "How should students learn the content?" It also helps us to answer more precise tasks such as deciding what textbooks to use, how to use them, what homework to assign and how much of it, how to test and use the results.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(50) 24. X TOPIC 2. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM. SELF-CHECK 2.1 1.. What do philosophers do?. 2.. List the concepts philosophers have been interested in.. 3.. What is philosophy of education? How is it related to the curriculum of a school system?. "In modern times there are opposing views about the practice of education. There is no general agreement about what the young should learn either in relation to virtue or in relation to the best life; nor is it clear whether their education ought to be directed more towards the intellect than towards the character of the soul. And it is not certain whether training should be directed at things useful in life, or at those conducive to virtue, or at nonessentials. And there is no agreement as to what in fact does tend towards virtue. Men do not all prize most highly the same virtue. So naturally they differ also about the proper training for it.". Would you believe that the above statement was written more that 2000 years ago by the Greek philosopher Aristotle and we are still debating the same issues today? Sometimes one wonders whether we know what we want! We lament about the poor level of basic skills of students and call for a return to the basics. At the same time we want students to develop critical thinking skills and call for lesser emphasis on rote learning. Through the centuries, many philosophies of education have emerged, each with their own beliefs about education. In this topic, we will discuss four philosophies, namely; perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism proposed by Western philosophers. Also, discussed are the viewpoints of three Eastern philosophers; namely, al-Farabi, Tagore and Confucius. Each of these educational philosophies is examined to see what curriculum is proposed and how teaching and learning should be conducted.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(51) TOPIC 2. 2.4 2.4.1. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM. W. 25. PERENNIALISM What is Perennialism?. Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that blooms year after year. Perennialism, the oldest and most conservative educational philosophy has its roots in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Two modern day proponents of perennialism are Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The perennialists believed that humans are rational and the aim of education is "to improve man as man" (Hutchins, 1953). The answers to all educational questions derive from the answer to one question: What is human nature? According to them, human nature is constant and humans have the ability to understand the universal truths of nature. Thus, the aim of education is to develop the rational person and to uncover universal truths by training the intellect. Towards developing one's moral and spiritual being, character education should be emphasised. Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived. These ideas should be studied in school. A list of the 'Great Books' was proposed covering topics in Literature, Art, Psychology, Philosophy, Mathematics, Science, Economics, Politics and so forth. Examples of such books are: Robinson Crusoe written by Daniel Defoe, War and Peace written by Leo Tolstoy, Moby Dick written by Herman Melville, EuclidÊs book Elements on geometry, Newtons book on Optics, The Sexual Enlightenment of Children written by Sigmund Freud, An inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith and many others. The book selected had to have contemporary significance, that is, it should be relevant to the problems and issues of present times. The book should espouse ideas and issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals in the last 2000 years. The book should attract people to read it again and again and benefit from it. The perennialists believed that these are history's finest thinkers and writers. Their ideas are profound and meaningful even today as when they were written. When students are immersed in the study of these profound and enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake as well as develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities.. 2.4.2. The Perennialist Curriculum. Based on the beliefs of perennialism, the curriculum proposed had the following characteristics: Ć. The 'Great Books' programme or more commonly called the liberal arts will discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect. To read the book in its original Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

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