After having decided on the content, the next step is to organise the content in a form that will facilitate learning. The following principles have been proposed when deciding on content organisation (Sowell, 2000; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998):
6.3.1 Scope
Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics, learning experiences and organising threads found in the curriculum plan. Scope not only refers to cognitive learning but also affective learning, and some would argue spiritual learning (Goodland & Zhixin Su, 1992). Sometimes the scope of a curriculum is narrow, consisting of just a simple listing of key topics and activities.
"The physics syllabus is overloaded"
"Laboratory sessions has increased with the introduction of the new chemistry curriculum" "Scientific literacy of secondary school students is Low"
When we talk of scope, we are concerned with questions such as: How much science should students in primary school know? What is the level of mathematics required of students before they graduate from secondary school? When curriculum developers are engaged in deciding how much content should be included, they are determining the scope of the curriculum. When deciding about the scope of a curriculum, the following guidelines may be useful:
• You might want to ask about the usefulness of the content selected.
• You might want to ask whether the content caters to diverse student abilities. • You might want to ask if the amount of content selected can be covered in the
specified period of time.
• You might want to ask if there is a balance in the content selected between cognitive, psychomotor and affective or spiritual outcomes.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Do you think the scope (breadth and depth) of the subject you teach (or are familiar with) appropriate?
2. Give examples of subjects which you think the scope is inappropriate. Explain.
6.3.2 Sequence
Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it fosters cumulative and continuous learning (referred to as vertical relationship among sections of the curriculum). Do students have the opportunity to make connections and enrich their understanding of content? It is important that the
sequencing of content lead to cumulative development of intellectual and affective processes.
The sequence of content and experiences should be based on the logic of the subject matter and the way in which individuals learn. It should be based on psychological principles and understanding of human development and learning [refer to Topic 3: Psychological Foundation of Curriculum]. The following are some principles identified as guidelines in sequencing the curriculum: (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998; Taba, 1962; Bruner, 1960).
(a) Simple to complex ă content is organised going from simple subordinate components to complex components depicting interrelationships among components. Optimal learning occurs when students are presented with easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstract content. (b) Spiral - In a "spiral curriculum", concepts may be introduced on a simple
level in the early grades, then revisited with more and more complexity and application later on (Bruner, 1960).
(c) Prerequisites ă it works on the assumption that bits of information or learning must be grasped before other bits of information can be understood.
(d) Whole to part ă content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first presented to show the connections between the parts.
(e) Chronology ă this is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in subjects such as history, political science and world events.
(f) Vertical organisation - This simply means that content and skills are arranged so that they build on one another; that they align with the general sequence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have learned and what they will learn later.
(g) Horizontal organisation - It involves how skills and content that are taught during one level or one period of time relate to another. For example, in a social science course, you might consider particular issues from a historical, sociological, political and economic point of view.
6.3.3 Integration
Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different subject areas to reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject areas are brought together in such a way to present the learner with a unified picture of knowledge. Some have argued that however much curriculum planners try to integrate information; it is the learners who integrate what they
are learning in their minds. It is something that happens within the individual learner.
The idea of integration was popularised in the 60s by Hilda Taba because of concern that school curriculum was too disjointed, fragmented and detached. Lately, there has been a surge of interest in curriculum integration due to rapid accumulation of information that is doubling in a shorter period of time. Increasingly, there is a realisation that knowledge has to be viewed in a much broader sense, particularly in dealing with ideas that cut across disciplines. When faced with real-world situations, seldom is one area of content sufficient to explain complex phenomena. The need to examine phenomena drawing from various disciplines has intensified interest in the integrated curriculum. Examples of the integrated curriculum include science-technology-society and reading across the curriculum. In the science-technology-society (STS) curriculum, science is combined with social sciences in attempting to solve practical, everyday problems. The integrated approach takes the student outside the laboratory and away from the textbook into the local community.
6.3.4 Continuity
Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner progresses through the grades. Why? This is because students may not grasp certain concepts and skills in one experience and have to be presented again before they become clear. For example, students in the primary grades are taught the principles of essay writing. The same principles are repeated in the succeeding years. Continuity ensures the reappearance of certain major ideas at different grade levels at increased depth and complexity over the length of the curriculum. For example, doing experiments is a learning experience that is repeated throughout the teaching of science at increasing levels of complexity and abstraction.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. Name the different ways of sequencingcontent.
2. What do you understand by integration as one of the principles of content organisation?
3. Why is there need to ensure continuity in content organisation for certain concepts and skills?
6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum
The integrated curriculum is receiving much attention even though it is not necessarily a new way of looking at teaching and learning. The expanding body of knowledge, concerns about curriculum relevancy, lack of connection among subjects and the need for future workers to have the ability to draw from many fields in solving problems has been cited as reasons for a moving towards an integrated curriculum. The integrated curriculum is organised in such a way that cuts across subject matter, bringing together various aspects of content to focus upon broad areas of study. It views teaching and learning in a holistic way that reflects the real world.
Among the common areas of integration are: 1. art, mathematics and reading;
2. writing across the curriculum; 3. history, science and mathematics; 4. history and literature;
5. integrated humanities; 6. health and reading;
7. social studies, health and the arts;
8. physical education, the arts, health and literature; and 9. science, social studies, health and the arts.
For example, 'water' as a theme can be studied from the following areas: science (composition of water), geography (distribution of water resources), literature (poems on water), language (vocabulary related to water), history (disputes related to water), economics (supply and demand of water) and so forth.
Education journal and teachers' own anecdotal records report many examples of educators linking subject areas to provide meaningful learning experiences. It has been suggested that the integrated curriculum helps students apply skills, leads to faster retrieval of information, encourages depth and breadth in learning and promotes positive attitudes (improved team spirit and work habits).
Successful implementation of an integrated curriculum requires a great deal of planning. It requires teachers to go out into the community to see what mathematics, science, social sciences, language arts, artistic and occupational skills are required in the contemporary workplace. Representatives from business, industry, government and labour need to provide suggestions for curriculum redesign.
Source: Lake, K. Integrated curriculum. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Available at http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/8/c016.html
ACTIVITY 6.3
Refer to the Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum and answer the following questions:
1. Why is there a revival of interest in the integrated curriculum? 2. What are some positive effects of curriculum integration?
3. Suggest ways in which the subjects or courses in your institution may be integrated.