5.6
The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team led by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Three domains were addressed and each taxonomy of abilities, emotions and skills were developed. A taxonomy is a system for classifying something, and in this case; the classifying of learning objectives or learning outcomes. Taxonomies of learning objectives or learning outcomes are used to categorise goals for student learning. Taxonomies are based on the assumption that different types of objectives are learned through different mental processes. The three taxonomies are:
• The Cognitive Domain which is concerned with mental or intellectual skills and abilities.
• The Affective Domain which is concerned with feelings, values and attitudes. • The Psychomotor Domain which is concerned with physical skills.
The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what a body of content require students to do, and for thinking about how students should be able to demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is valuable because it draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity of intellectual tasks which a subject might require to perform.
5.6.1 Cognitive Domain
BloomÊs taxonomy of the cognitive domain is perhaps the best known and most widely used. It was published in 1956. It lists a personÊs observable and unobservable intellectual abilities such as comprehending information, organising ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the types of cognitive learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum. Bloom and his associated classified cognitive learning in six major categories: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see Table 5.1).
Table 5.1: The Cognitive Taxonomy Cognitive
Levels Description
Examples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes Knowledge Remembering previously learned
material. The skill may involve recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information.
Define, describe, identify, label, list, match, name, select, state, outline, recite.
Comprehension The ability to grasp meaning of material. This skill may be shown by translating material from one form to another, by interpreting material (explaining or summarising), and by estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects).
Change, decode, defend, distinguish, estimate, explain, generalise, infer, give example, illustrate, paraphrase, predict, rewrite,
restate, summarise, solve.
Application The ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This
Apply, compute, demonstrate, develop, employ, manipulate,
may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws and theories.
modify, organise, produce, relate, transfer, discover. Synthesis The ability to put parts together to
form a new whole. This may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information).
Categorise, combine, compile, compose, construct,
create, design, devise, formulate, invent, generate,
propose, rearrange, reconstruct, revise, rewrite,
set up. Evaluation The ability to judge the value of
material (statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The judgements are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria (organisation) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or be given them.
Appraise, choose, compare, conclude, contrast, criticise, decide, defend, discriminate, justify, resolve, support, validate, write a review.
Source: Bloom, B. (1956). Handbook of taxonomy of educational objectives
5.6.2 Affective Domain
After the appearance of the cognitive taxonomy, David R. Krathwohl and others, including Benjamin Bloom, developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain in 1964 (see Table 5.2). The affective domain relates to the manner in which we deal with things involving our emotions; such as our feelings, our values, how we appreciate something, our enthusiasm for something, what motivates us to do something and our attitudes towards something.
Table 5.2: The Affective Taxonomy
Cognitive Levels Description
Examples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or
Outcomes Receiving Willingness to receive or to attend
to particular information or activity (textbook, classroom activity). Receiving involves the willingness to receive or accept and focussing attention.
Attend, be aware, listen, reply, show, alert, use, watch, select, tolerate, follow, ask.
Responding Refers to active participation by the student. The student is actively attending by responding in the class and is involved in the teaching-learning setting. He or she gains satisfaction from engaging in activities.
Agree, answer, communicate, comply, consent, contribute, cooperate, help, inquire, obey, participate, question, request, report, respond, seek, volunteer.
Valuing The students sees worth or value in what is being learned or the activity being done. The student does not merely obey or complies but does so because he or she is intrinsically motivated.
Accept, adopt, approve, complete, commit, desire, display, exhibit, express, initiate, invite, prefer, share, study, work.
Organisation The student brings together many different values and attempt to resolve the conflicts between the values. Through this process he or she builds a value system. He or she sees how new values are related to existing values and try to establish a balance.
Adapt, alter, arrange, classify, compare, defend, establish, generalise, integrate, modify, order, rank, synthesise.
Characterisation The student internalises the values. In other words, he or she adopts the values as his or her own. The values internalised determines the behaviour of the student. The behaviour is consistent and predictable.
Act, behave, conform, devote, display, endure, exemplify, function, maintain, practice, perform, uphold, use, influence.
Source: Bloom, B., & Krathwohl, D. (1964). Handbook of taxonomy of educational objectives.
5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two taxonomies. There are several interpretations of the domain and one of them was developed by R. Dave in 1970 (see Table 5.3). The psychomotor domain involves physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Developments of these skills require practice and are measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures or techniques in execution.
Table 5.3: The Psychomotor Taxonomy Cognitive
Levels Description
Examples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes Imitation The student indicates a readiness to
learn a certain complex skill. Imitation includes repeating an act that has been demonstrated or explained. It includes trial and error until an appropriate response is achieved.
Assemble, carryout, copy, construct, repeat, duplicate, practice, reproduce, start, try, volunteer, sketch, follow.
Manipulation The student continues to practice the skill until it becomes habitual and can be performed with some confidence. The response is more complex but he or she is still not sure of himself or herself.
[All the verbs for Imitation plus the following]: acquire, conduct, do, execute, operate, perform, produce, progress, use, operate.
Precision The student attains the skill and proficiency is indicated by a quick, smooth and accurate performance. The response is complex and performed without hesitation.
[All the verbs for Imitation and Manipulation plus the following]: achieve, automatise, exceed, excel, master, reach, refine, surpass, accomplish.
Articulation The student is involved at an even higher level of precision. The skill is well developed. The student can adapt the skill according to different requirements.
Adapt, change, alter, reorganise, rearrange, revise.
Naturalisation The skill is automatic and the student is able to experiment and create new ways of using the skill.
Arrange, compose, refine, create, design, originate, transcend.
Source: Dave, R. (1974). Psychomotor domain
The three taxonomies provide guidelines for developing instructional objectives and learning outcomes in a curriculum plan. The taxonomies serve as a guide to encourage teachers to move their learners from the lower outcomes to higher levels of learning in each domain.
• Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes determination of aims and goals, design, implementation and evaluation. • The Tyler model focuses on four aspects: the purpose of education, the
educational experiences to be provided, organisation of educational experiences, and evaluation to determine attainment of goals.
• The Taba model emphasises the need for teachers, who teach the curriculum, to participate in developing it.
• The Alexander and Saylor model consists of four phases: goals and domains, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and evaluation.
• Levels of goals: educational philosophy, educational goals, curriculum goals, curriculum objectives, instructional goals and instructional objectives.
• An instructional objective or learning outcomes specifies the behaviour desired, the conditions in which the behaviour is to be exhibited and the criteria for evaluating achievement.
• The learning domains are: the cognitive domain (intellectual abilities), the affective domain (emotions and feelings) and the psychomotor domain (skills).
Affective domain Cognitive domain
Curriculum development
Curriculum development models: • Tyler model
• Taba model
• Alexander & Saylormodel
Curriculum goals Curriculum objectives Educational philosophy Instructional goals Instructional objectives Psychomotor domain
1. If you heading a project on developing a curriculum for a particular course or subject, which of these 3 models of curriculum development would you adopt to guide you? Why?
2. Have a look at any course or programme.
(a) Is there a clear statement of curriculum objectives and instructional objectives to be achieved?
(b) Would you say that students would be clear about what they are expected to do in the course, or do the objectives simply delineate the content areas that the course will cover?
(c) Is there an explicit relationship between the objectives and the teaching-learning methods employed in the subject?
(d) Is summative assessment carried out by anything other than class tests and examinations?
(e) Is there any mention in them of the affective side to learning in the subject?
(f) If not, what do you think would be appropriate affective objectives for the subject?
Henchey, N. (1999). The new curriculum reform: what does it really mean? McGill Journal of Education, 34(3), p. 227. [Available at ProQuest].
Reimer, B. (1989). A comprehensive arts curriculum model. Design for Arts in Education, 90(6), pp. 39-43. [Available at ProQuest].
Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Chapter 9: Aims, goals and objectives.
Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 4: Studies of subject matter.
Dalton, J., & Smith, D. (1986) Applying Bloom's taxonomy. http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/researchskills/dalton.htm
MagerÊs tips on instructional objective.
X
INTRODUCTION
The curriculum development process aims towards producing a plan that stipulates the kinds of teaching-learning experiences students will engage in. In Topic 5, we discussed the initial step in the curriculum development process which is curriculum planning in which decisions are made as to what we want students to be able to do. This is derived from the educational philosophy and aims of education. It also includes the kinds the objectives that are to be achieved by teachers or instructors at the classroom level. To guide discussion of the curriculum development process, three well-known models were examined; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba model, and the Saylor and Alexander model. In this Topic, we will deal with the next phase of the curriculum development process which is curriculum design.
T
Tooppiic c
6
Curriculum
Design
X
6
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define what is curriculum design;
2. Recognise the criteria for the selection of content; 3. Explain the principles of content organisation;
4. List the criteria for the selection of learning experiences; and
5. Compare subject matter-centred, learner-centred and problem-centred curriculum design models.
'Prevention is Better than Cure' As society becomes increasingly
complex, the incidence of various at-risk behaviours among students has increased. These include substance abuse (tobacco and drugs), teen pregnancies, road safety, sexual promiscuity, violence, HIV infection, gangsterism, bullying and others. Parents and society have not adequately taught students to avoid such high-risk behaviours and have passed on the task to schools. As such we see „add-on‰ programmes which often are a series of brief, fragmented units on critical life issues, squeezed into the regular curriculum.
Unfortunately there is never enough hours in a school day and they have to compete for valuable class time. So, instead of "doing more", curriculum planners have decided to introduce prevention programmes by using existing school subjects.
Adopting the curriculum infusion approach, educators have designed lesson plans to include prevention issues in the regular curriculum. They have used real-life issues as the context for addressing the critical health and social issues while teaching academic subjects. In fact prevention strategies are ideally suited to infusion into academic subjects.
Some educators are beginning to resent having to be the sole ÂcustodianÊ of society with parents and the community not doing enough to prevent such negative behaviours among students and youths. Through the years, more and more societal issues have been brought into the curriculum and schools are expected to teach them in an already crowded curriculum.
Source: Adapted from Critical issues: Infusing prevention into the curriculum, NCREL. Available at http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/envrnmnt/drugfree/sa300.htnm
ACTIVITY 6.1
Read the report on "Prevention is Better than Cure." 1. To what extent is this happening in your school?
2. Give other examples of critical issues your schools have to deal with. 3. Do you agree that prevention issues should be included in the school