Motivation
Motivation
Psychologists have made strides in
understanding complicated motivated behaviors.
But many human motivations are still puzzling or seem illogical when scrutinized.
We will begin with some general principles of motivation, and then examine three areas of interest: hunger, the sex drive, and work.
Module 11.1
Properties of Motivated Behavior
Properties of motivated behavior:
They are goal directed behaviors – motivated individuals keep working until they reach their goal.
They vary from time to time and one individual to the next.
If an individual varies the behavior and persists until reaching a goal, it is a motivated behavior.
Views of Motivation
It is hard to develop a satisfactory definition
of motivation
There are several frameworks that are used
in psychology to understand what motivation
is.
Views of Motivation
Motivation as an energy
The word motivation is derived from the same
root as “motion” – something that moves an organism.
It can be defined as what activates and directs
behavior.
Lorenz and others proposed that animals behave in
instinctive ways when certain energies reach a critical level.
It is as if a specific kind of energy builds up and
needs to be released, if it is not released through the preferred outlet, it will “spill” through a less preferred one.
Figure 11.1
Figure 11.1 According to Konrad Lorenz, energy (represented as a fluid) builds up in a “reservoir” and needs to be discharged. For example, if your sex–specific energy cannot discharge through its normal outlets, the energy builds up until it discharges through some other outlet. (After Lorenz, 1950)
Views of Motivation
Motivation as an energy
This view is based upon an obsolete conception of how the nervous system works.
We now understand that individuals can inhibit impulses towards a disadvantageous behavior; there is no “spilling” of unreleased energy.
Views of Motivation
Drive theories
A drive is a state of unrest or irritation that energizes one behavior after another until one of them removes the irritation.
Drive-reduction theory proposes that animals
strive to reduce their drives as much as possible.
Views of Motivation
Drive theories
By extension, drive-reduction theory would
predict that once all needs have been met, the organism would become inactive.
People seek variety and activity in life, not a condition of non-stimulation.
The theory ignores the role of external
stimulation. Interest in food depends not only on hunger but also on what foods are available.
Views of Motivation
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of an
optimum level of biological conditions within an organism.
Conditions such as temperature, hydration,
nutrition, and weight are maintained at a state of equilibrium.
Unlike drive-reduction theory, in homeostasis it is necessary for the organism to expend energy to maintain the optimum state.
Views of Motivation
Homeostasis
The homeostasis framework overlooks the power of new stimuli to arouse behavior.
Humans also will adjust current behavior or consumption in anticipation of future needs. A person may eat one large meal in anticipation of skipping the next one, for example.
Views of Motivation
Incentive theories
Incentives are external stimuli that pull us toward certain actions.
Most motivated behaviors are controlled by a combination of drives and incentives.
You eat because you are hungry and also because you are standing in front of a
restaurant offering appealing sights and smells of food.
Views of Motivation
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations
An intrinsic motivation is a motivation to do an act for its own sake.
An extrinsic motivation is based on the reinforcements and punishments that may follow an action.
Most motivated behaviors result from a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.
Views of Motivation
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations
Sometimes providing extrinsic motivations for a behavior that are already intrinsically
motivated may result in a reduction of the performance of that behavior.
This effect is known as overjustification. Overjustification predicts that if people are
given more extrinsic motivation than needed to perform a task, the intrinsic motivation
Figure 11.2
Figure 11.2 Monkeys learned to remove the pin, hook, and hasp in that order to open this device. When they started receiving a raisin instead of opening it just for fun, their performance deteriorated.
Table 11.1
Concept Check:
You enjoy taking guitar lessons. Would it
increase or decrease your interest if your
parents offered to pay you for practicing?
Types of Motivation
Delay of gratification
Sometimes motivated behavior involved delay
of gratification, choosing a smaller payoff now in order to get a bigger payoff later.
The choice-delay task discussed in Chapter 8 is an example of this type of motivation.
Delay of gratification is complicated.
Sometimes individuals will choose to get an unpleasant event over with to avoid
experiencing dread, and will postpone a
Many Types of Motivation
We understand some motivations that are
directly related to survival, but still puzzle
over those that seem to have nothing to do
with staying alive.
Unusual behaviors are most likely driven by a
combination of motivating factors, both
intrinsic and extrinsic in origin.
Module 11.2
The Physiological Mechanisms
of Hunger
Hunger is a homeostatic drive that makes fuel
available to the body.
One major factor in initiating hunger is a drop in glucose entering the body’s cells.
Glucose is the most abundant sugar in the blood, and is an important source of energy, especially for the brain.
Excess glucose is converted into fat and stored for later use.
Figure 11.3
Figure 11.3 Varying secretions of insulin regulate the flow of nutrients from the blood into the cells or from storage back into the blood.
The Physiological Mechanisms
of Hunger
Two hormones secreted by the pancreas work
in complimentary fashion to regulate hunger
and nutrition:
Insulin increases the flow of glucose and other nutrients into body cells.
Insulin production surges at the beginning of a meal and falls off afterwards.
Glucagon converts stored nutrients into blood glucose and is released between meals when energy is needed.
The Physiological Mechanisms
of Hunger
If insulin is consistently in short supply, as in
those individual afflicted with diabetes, the
body will absorb little nutrition.
If insulin is consistently present in excessive
amounts, most of the nutrients that are
consumed are stored as fat.
In both of these instances, appetite is
increased, though low insulin levels usually
lead to weight loss, and high insulin levels
lead to weight gain.
Figure 11.4
The Long-Term Regulation of
Hunger
In the short run, food intake does not always
match the individual’s nutritional needs
Weight tends to fluctuate in the short-term, but is very stable in the long-term.
Most individuals’ weights are very close to a
set point, a level that the brain and body work to maintain.
Part of the mechanism for regulating weight in the long term is the hormone leptin, which is secreted by the fat cells themselves.
Figure 11.5
Figure 11.5 For most people, weight fluctuates around a set point, the way a diving board bounces up and down from a central position.
The Long-Term Regulation of
Hunger
Leptin works in the hypothalamus to alert the
brain that no more fat cells are needed.
Leptin is part of the system for triggering the
changes of puberty.
Some cases of obesity are linked to a lack of
leptin. Other obese individuals have the
hormone but are relatively insensitive to its
effects.
Brain Mechanisms of Hunger
and Satiety
The hypothalamus is the location of several
areas critical to regulation of food intake
The lateral hypothalamus appears to be
critical for starting eating. Damage to this area will cause starvation through lack of interest in food.
Figure 11.6
Figure 11.6 The hypothalamus, a small area on the underside of the brain, contains several subareas that contribute in various ways to eating, drinking, sexual behavior, and other motivated activities.
Brain Mechanisms of Hunger
and Satiety
The
ventromedial hypothalamus
is
important for regulating the rate at which
food is digested. When it is damaged, people
will digest food quickly, eat more, and put on
weight.
The
paraventricular hypothalamus
regulates satiety in the short-term, and if this
part is damaged, a person may literally eat
Concept Check:
Name each of the three hormones, the body
part that secretes it, and its net effect on
appetite.
Insulin – Pancreas – Increases appetite
Glucagon – Pancreas – Decreases appetite Leptin – Fat Cells – Decreases appetite
Concept Check:
After damage to the lateral hypothalamus, an
animal’s weight reaches a lower level and then
fluctuates around that amount. What has
happened to the set point?
Social and Cultural Influences
on Eating
Physiological mechanisms account only in
part for our eating habits.
Obesity is a growing problem in many parts of the world.
Social factors and the influence of
mass-marketing of energy dense “junk foods” are just two factors that play a role in this
Eating Too Much or Too Little
Obesity is the excessive accumulation of body
fat
Obesity is a serious health risk because it increases the individual’s risk of:
Diabetes
Coronary diseases Some types of cancer Sleep apnea
Eating Too Much or Too Little
Obesity is usually due to the individual’s
taking in more calories than he or she is
using.
There is no reliable connection between
emotional disturbances and obesity. It neither causes obesity nor results from it, despite the acceptability of “fat prejudice” in our culture. Emotional disturbance can cause temporary
Eating Too Much or Too Little
Obesity tends to run in families. Genes play a
role but they are not the only cause.
The dramatic increase in obesity in the
United States over the past 50 years has been
linked to lifestyle factors.
We have sophisticated technology to do most
of the heavy work that was done in daily life a
century ago.
Eating Too Much or Too Little
We also have a diet rich in fat, salt and sugar
(due to the success of “fast-food”) and a food
industry that uses advertising and persuasion
to encourage the over-consumption of food.
Many overweight individuals are eating more
than is needed, but there are some who are
eating normal-sized meals and are hampered
by low energy output, or low metabolism.
Losing Weight
Although losing weight can seem to be
extraordinarily difficult, there are a number
of strategies available to the motivated
individual.
A certain amount of exercise must be a part of any long-term weight loss strategy.
Losing Weight
Twelve-step programs such as OA can be
useful for those who are comfortable with the spiritual focus of such groups.
Private counseling can be utilized for those
overweight individuals who are also struggling with psychological problems.
Losing Weight
What about medications?
The use of medications for weight loss remains controversial.
The variety of drugs available has increased. Medications act by weakening hunger signals
to the brain, blocking absorption of fat in the intestines, or increasing metabolism.
The Effect of Weight Loss on
Appetite
In America it is common for everyone,
especially women, to be unhappy with their
physiques.
Americans tend to worry more about what they
eat.
Americans express more interest in obtaining
low-fat, low-salt, “health foods.”
A slender figure is presented as ideal and there
is a great deal of social pressure to be very thin.
Figure 11.9
Figure 11.9 In a study by Fallon and Rozin (1985), women and men were asked which figure they considered most attractive and which figure they believed the opposite sex
The Effect of Intentional Weight
Loss on Appetite
Dieting is extremely difficult.
Dieting requires a great deal of mental energy. The stress of dieting can make the dieter more
vulnerable to temptation.
Dieting can contribute to the development of eating disorders.
Anorexia Nervosa
Anorexia nervosa is a condition in which a
person refuses to eat an adequate amount of
food and starves.
Anorexia usually begins at puberty.
It is uncommon in cultures where a plump female body is acceptable or desirable.
It occurs more in middle-class or upper-middle-class women, regardless of ethnicity.
It seems to be related to social pressure and media influence.
Anorexia Nervosa
Some scientists have tried to link anorexia to
disorders of the lateral hypothalamus.
People with anorexia show keen interest in
food (probably because they are starving).
A lack of hunger, which would be triggered by
problems in the lateral hypothalamus, is not a
likely explanation.
Anorexia Nervosa
There is an intense “fear of fatness” involved
in anorexia.
It is more likely that a tendency to
perfectionism, coupled with the constant
social pressures around body image,
contribute to the development of this
disorder.
Anorexia Nervosa
A recent (Guisinger, 2003) speculative
evolutionary explanation suggests that the
hyperactivity and food obsessions that often
accompany anorexia may have adaptive roots.
Animals that are migrating in search of better
feeding grounds often exhibit similar
behavioral tendencies, traveling vigorously
while abstaining from food.
The hypothesis explains a great deal, but is
Bulimia
Alternation between self-starvation and
binging is called bulimia.
It is highly likely that dieting causes the feeling of starvation that brings on the binging
behavior.
People with bulimia tend to have low
self-esteem, great dissatisfaction with their bodies, and histories of family dysfunction.
Many bulimics fluctuate around normal to high body weight; a few are very thin.
Eating Disorders
Eating disorders have increased in
prevalence in the United States over the past
two decades. At the same time, the number
of women who are unhappy with their bodies
is also increasing.
The lifestyle changes that make it easy to
become overweight, coupled with the high
pressure on women to look very thin, have
probably both contributed to this disturbing
trend.
The Complexities of Hunger
Eating, hunger and dieting are topics that
underscore the message of this chapter.
Our motivations are diverse and interact with
each other. How much and what we eat
depends not only on our need for sustenance,
but on social and psychological forces as well.
Module 11.3
The Kinsey Survey
Alfred C. Kinsey conducted the first major
survey of human sexual behavior.
He had a large sample, but it was not randomly gathered and since it was from only one area of the United States, cannot be considered
representative.
His results are still useful in that they are indicative of the wide variation in human sexual habits and attitudes.
Influences on Sexual Anatomy
Levels of estrogen increase in females at this
time and influence internal female development.
Some fetuses develop into individuals who have
an intermediate appearance between the sexes. These individuals are referred to as intersexes.
These individuals used to be surgically altered
to create a distinct male or female appearance.
This practice is no longer common because it
created problems for intersex individuals later in life.
Module 11.4
Goals and Deadlines
People appear to differ in their levels of
striving for accomplishment and excellence.
Most people appear to enjoy competition to
some degree and will work to outdo others
and achieve a goal if there is a reasonable
chance of succeeding.
Most people appear to require deadlines to
help move them along to completion of a
goal.
Overcoming Procrastination
Confidence and formulation of specific plans
to meet goals are two useful tools in
overcoming procrastination.
The
mere measurement effect
is the principle
that if one names an activity and estimates
ones likelihood of engaging in that activity
within a specific timeframe, one raises the
chances of actually doing it.
High and Low Goals
Very high goals tend to promote good
performance, as long as the goals seem
realistic.
Students and workers be able to attain the goal and take them seriously.
They need to receive specific and frequent feedback.
Challenging goals require intrinsic motivation, rewards are less motivating for difficult goals than they are for easy goals.
Figure 11.20
Job Design
Should jobs be designed to be challenging
and interesting, or simple and foolproof?
According to the scientific-management
approach, or Theory X, most employees are
lazy, indifferent and not creative. Work should be easy to perform and strictly supervised.
According to the human-relations approach, or Theory Y, employees crave a sense of
responsibility, variety of tasks, and a feeling of accomplishment.
Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is influenced by a variety of factors.
Some factors are related to the job – interest level, pay, coworkers and management.
The employee’s personality is also a factor.
Job satisfaction appears to be heritable – if other people in your family are happy with their work, chances are you will be also.
Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
In general job satisfaction is strongly related to overall life satisfaction.
Most adults say they are satisfied with their work, but also say that they would choose a different job if they could “start over.”
Younger workers generally report being less satisfied than older workers.
Few people change jobs once they have reached middle age.
Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
What about the influence of pay on job satisfaction?
It appears to be very important, although probably not the most important consideration.
The perception that the pay level is fair is crucial. People will work at a lower-paying job that offers a
Figure 11.22
Figure 11.24 Psychologists propose several reasons why most older workers report higher job satisfaction than younger workers do.
Leadership
How hard one works at a job is also
influenced by perceptions of how your
organization is led.
It is hard to measure the qualities of an effective leader.
In describing the characteristics of an effective leader, an interesting distinction has been
Leadership
Transformational leaders articulate a vision for the future, and challenge and motivate
subordinates to be creative in improving the organization.
Transactional leaders try to make the
organization more efficient at what it already does, usually through the use of incentives.
Leadership
The types are not mutually exclusive. Some
leaders have features of both types, and some
have none.
Transformational leaders tend to be viewed
as effective across a variety of contexts.
Transactional leaders are described as more
effective in stable organizations where activities tend not to vary in the long run.
Work Motivation
Unlike hunger, the motivation for
achievement is complicated by the fact that
there rarely is a point of satiety.
People who achieve major goals tend to set
new ones and begin striving for them.
