Einstein College of Engineering
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT – BA 913UNIT-1(introduction to quality management) Definition:
Total – Whole, entire, complete Quality – Excellence, class, meeting expectation Management – organising, administering, art of getting things done
TQM is defined as both philosophy and a set of guiding principles that represent the foundation of continuously improving organisation. It is the application of quantitative methods and human resources to improve all the process within the organisation and exceed customer needs now and in the future.
Total Quality Management is an effective system for integrating the quality development, quality maintenance and quality improvement efforts of various groups in an organization continuously, so as to enable marketing, engineering, production and service at the most economic levels which allow for full customer satisfaction.
Historical Review of TQM
Industrialisation led to mass production in which it led to the concept of one product at a time to the assembly line of production. Though workmanship was affected but mass production led to more job and reduction in cost of the product and increase in quality, reduction of defects etc.
1924 – After WWI, W.A. Sherwat of Bell Telephone statistical chart for the control of various. Concept of sample tests were followed. It was a failure in the initial stages.
1946 – ASQC American Society for Quality Control, now ASQ. Frequent meetings, conferences and publications were made to public.
1950 – W.Edwards Demings his guidance and lecture to Japan engineers transformed quality concepts in the organisation. His cycle ACT-PLAN-DO-CHECK
1954 – Joseph M.Juran Concept of efficient and productive. Juran Trilogy Quality planning – Quality Control – Quality Improvement 1960 – Quality control circles was formed. Zero defects concepts
1970 – Reactive approach to proactive approach. Shift from Japan to USA
1980 – SPC – Statistical Process Control. Concepts of parameter and tolerance. Experiments 1990 – Concepts of certification of ISO, CMM etc
2000 – six sigma concept - Six Sigma stands for Six Standard Deviations (Sigma is the Greek letter used to represent standard deviation in statistics) from mean. Six Sigma methodology provides the techniques and tools to improve the capability and reduce the defects in any process.
TQM Basic Concepts
1. Management Involvement – Participate in quality program, develop quality council, direct participation
2. Focus on customer – who is the customer – internal and external, voice of the customer, do it right first time and every time.
3. Involvement and utilisation of entire work force – All levels of management
4. Continuous improvement – Quality never stops, placing orders, bill errors, delivery, minimise wastage and scrap etc.
5. Treating suppliers as partners – no business exists without suppliers. 6. Performance measures – creating accountability in all levels
Barriers in TQM Implementation
1. Lack of commitment from top management – avoiding training for self and employees, meetings 2. Lack of employee involvement – particularly at managerial level, supportive attitude, trust 3. Lack of team work – Co-operation and co-ordination within workers.
4. Lack of customer oriented approach – Know the customer need, demand, taste, shortcomings 5. Lack of attention to feedback and complaints –
6. Supplier control – in terms of materials, cost, quality, delivery etc
Einstein College of Engineering
Five Pillars of TQM are,· Product · Process · System · People · Leadership Benefits of TQM :
Customer satisfaction oriented benefits : 1. Improvement in product quality
2. Improvement in product design 3. Improvement in production flow
4. Improvement in employee morale and quality consciousness 5. Improvement in product service
6. Improvement in market place acceptance Economic improvement oriented benefits : 1. Reduction in operating costs
2. Reduction in operating losses 3. Reduction in field service costs 4. Reduction in liability exposure Principles of TQM :
Visionary leadership Customer-driven excellence
Organizational and personal learning Valuing employees and partners Agility
Focus on the future Managing for innovation Management by fact Public responsibility
Focus of results and creating values Systems perspective
Quality – When a product or service meets or exceeds expectation considering the intended use and the selling price.
Quality = performance / expectation
Definition by ISO 9000:2000 It if defined as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirement.
Degree – good, excellent, bad Inherent – existing, within, natural Requirement – need or expectation Dimensions of quality
1. Performance - Fulfilment of primary requirement
2. Features - Additional things that enhance performance 3. Conformance - Meeting specific standards set by the industry 4. Reliability - Consistence performance over a period of time 5. Durability - Long life and less maintenance
6. Service - Ease of repair, guarantee, and warranty 7. Response - Dealer customer relationship, human interface 8. Aesthetics - exteriors, packages
Einstein College of Engineering
Vision Statement:It is a short declaration of what an organization aspires to be tomorrow. It is the ideal state that might never reached but which you continuously strive to achieve.
Example : We will be the preferred provider of safe, reliable, and cost-effective products and services that satisfy the electric-related needs of all customer segments.
FLORIDA POWER & LIGHT COMPANY Mission Statement :
The mission statements answers the following questions :
Who we are ? Who are the customers ? What we do ? and How we do it ?
It is the usually a one paragraph statement which describes the function of the organization. It provides a clear statement of purpose for employees, customers and suppliers.
Example : To meet customers‘ transportation and distribution needs by being the best at moving their goods on time, safely and damage free.
CANADIAN NATIONAL RAILWAYS Quality Policy:
The Quality Policy is a guide for everyone in the organization as to how they should provide products and service to the customers. The common characteristics are
Quality is first among equals.
Meet the needs of the internal and external customers. Equal or exceed the competition.
Continually improve the quality.
Include business and production practices. Utilize the entire work force
Customer perception of quality
Before 1988 – Performance, Prize and service After 1989 – Performance, service and prize ASQ – American Society for Quality
1. Performance – availability (ready for use), reliability (free from failure), maintainability 2. Features – psychological and technical. Added feature along with main usage
3. Service – intangible, made up of many small things
4. Warranty – Vs guarantee. Customer feels comfortable with this
5. Price – value for money, ready to pay at the same time comparative study to be done 6. Reputation – Branding merges with quality. Good exp reaches 6 bad reaches 15 Service Quality
Shift in focus from manufacturing industry to service industry and the services involved in manufacturing organization.
Customer service is the set of activities an organization uses to win, attract and retain customers. It can be provided before, during and after the sale of the product.
Elements of customer service Organization
1. Identify each segment – where the organization needs to concentrate on quality
2. Write down requirement – Proper documentation of quality policy in the form of a handbook 3. Communicate requirements – Inform its importance to all levels in the organisation
4. Organize process – create a systematic process as it is ongoing and never ending process 5. Organize physical spaces – aesthetics, atmosphere, room space, recreation, wifi etc
Customer Care – Henry Ford – The boss just handles the cash it is the customer who pays your salary
1. Meet the customers expectation – treat all customers alike, respond quickly 2. Get the customer‘s point of view – think in the point of view of a customer 3. Deliver what is promised – keep up promise at any cost
4. Make the customer feel valued – customer must feel that due respect and importance is given to him 5. Respond to all complaints – minimize complaints and eradicate similar and repeated complaints
Einstein College of Engineering
6. Over-respond to customer – make him feel he is cloud nine7. Provide clean and comfortable reception area – cleanliness, spacious, dress code, weather etc Communication – All forms of communication written, verbal, advt, web site must prove quality 1. Optimize trade off between time and personal attention
2. Minimize the number of contact points – channels and levels 3. Provide pleasant and knowledgeable enthusiastic employees
4. Write document in customer friendly language – simple and point blank
Front-line people – The people who have first and direct contact or interaction with the customer 1. Hire people who like people – train groom them
2. Challenge them to develop better methods – small changes in packing, billing etc 3. Give them authority to solve problems – give discounts, free gifts etc
4. Serve them as internal customers
5. Make sure they are adequately trained – written and oral communication, body language etc 6. Recognize and reward performance - Nordstorm example obsess with the customer
Leadership
1. Lead by example – spend time with all level, dealers and suppliers. Like having food , using co product 2. Listen to front line people
3. Strive for continuous process improvement Customer Retention
- It is the final result of customer satisfaction and customer loyalty
- Most cases what customer says or feels may vary from actual consumption or purchase - Customer must refer more customers and increase the revenue
- External research must be done to feel the pulse of the customer - Employee retention is proportional customer retention
Quality cost:
During the 1950‘s the concept of ―Quality Cost‖ emerged. Different people assigned different meanings to the term. Some people equated quality cost with the cost of attaining quality; some people equated the term with the extra incurred due to poor quality. But, the widely accepted thing is ―Quality cost is the extra cost incurred due to poor or bad quality of the product or service‖.
Categories of Quality Cost :
Many companies summarize quality costs into four broad categories. They are,
a) Internal failure costs - The cost associated with defects that are found prior to transfer of the product to the customer.
b) External failure costs - The cost associated with defects that are found after product is shipped to the customer.
c) Appraisal costs - The cost incurred in determining the degree of conformance to quality requirement. d) Prevention costs - The cost incurred in keeping failure and appraisal costs to a minimum.
Analysis technique for Quality Cost
The term "trend analysis" refers to the concept of collecting information and attempting to spot a pattern, or trend, in the information. In some fields of study, the term "trend analysis" has more formally-defined meanings. Although trend analysis is often used to predict future events, it could be used to estimate uncertain events in the past, such as how many ancient kings probably ruled between two dates, based on data such as the average years which other known kings reigned.
Pareto Analysis
This fact gave rise to the Pareto effect or Pareto‘s law: – ‗the vital few and the trivial many‘.
The Pareto effect is named after Vilfredo Pareto, an economist and sociologist who lived from 1848 to 1923. Originally trained as an engineer he was a one time managing director of a group of coalmines. Pareto analysis is a statistical technique in decision making that is used for selection of a limited number of tasks that produce significant overall effect. It uses the Pareto principle - the idea that by doing 20% of work you can generate 80% of the advantage of doing the entire job. Or in terms of quality improvement, a large majority of problems (80%) are produced by a few key causes (20%).
Einstein College of Engineering
Pareto analysis is a formal technique useful where many possible courses of action are competing for your attention. In essence, the problem-solver estimates the benefit delivered by each action, then selects a number of the most effective actions that deliver a total benefit reasonably close to the maximal possible one. Use of Pareto principle in prioritizing or ranking a range of items which have different levels of significance. Its objective is to separate the 'vital few' from the 'useful many.'Steps to identify the important causes using Pareto analysis
Step 1: Form a table listing the causes and their frequency as a percentage.
Step 2: Arrange the rows in the decreasing order of importance of the causes (i.e, the most important cause first)
Step 3: Add a cumulative percentage column to the table
Step 4: Plot with causes on x- and cumulative percentage on y-axis Step 5: Join the above points to form a curve
Step 6: Plot (on the same graph) a bar graph with causes on x- and percent frequency on y-axis Step 7: Draw line at 80% on y-axis parallel to x-axis. Then drop the line at the point of
intersection with the curve on x-axis. This point on the x-axis separates the important causes (on the left) and trivial causes (on the right)
UNIT-2(PRINCIPLES AND PHILOSOPHIES OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT) Demings 14 Points Summarised
1. Create constancy of purpose and continual improvement
2. Adopt the new (Japanese) philosophy – by management and workers alike. 3. Do not depend on (quality) inspection – build quality into the product and process 4. Choose quality suppliers
5. Improve constantly – to reduce variation in all aspects 6. Training on the job – for workers and management.
7. Leadership not supervision – to get people to do a better job, not just meet targets. 8. Eliminate fear – encourage two-way communication, encourage employees
9. Break down internal barriers – department‘s are ―internal customers‖ 10. Eliminate slogans (exhortations) – processes make mistakes not people. 11. Eliminate numerical targets – management by objectives not numbers 12. Remover barriers to worker satisfaction – including annual appraisals 13. Encourage self improvement and education for all
14. Everyone is responsible for continual improvement in quality and productivity – particularly top management
PDCA Cycle – PLAN > DO > CHECK > ACT
The PDCA (or PDSA) Cycle was originally conceived by Walter Shewhart in 1930's, and later adopted by W. Edwards Deming.
The model provides a framework for the improvement of a process or system. It can be used to guide the entire improvement project
It can be used to develop specific projects once target improvement areas have been identified. Plan - a change or a test, aimed at improvement.
In this phase, analyze what you intend to improve, looking for areas that hold opportunities for change.
The first step is to choose areas that offer the most return for the effort you put in-the biggest bang for your buck.
To identify these areas for change consider using a Flow chart or Pareto chart Do - Carry out the change or test (preferably on a small scale).
Implement the change you decided on in the plan phase. Document the procedure and observation
Einstein College of Engineering
Use tools to collect information Check or Study - the results. What was learned? What went wrong?
This is a crucial step in the PDCA cycle. After you have implemented the change for a short time, you must determine how well it is working.
Is it really leading to improvement in the way you had hoped? You must decide on several measures with which you can monitor the level of improvement.
Run Charts can be helpful with this measurement. Act - Adopt the change, abandon it, or run the cycle again.
After planning a change, implementing and then monitoring it, you must decide whether it is worth continuing that particular change.
If it consumed too much of your time, was difficult to adhere to, or even led to no improvement, you may consider aborting the change and planning a new one.
However, if the change led to a desirable improvement or outcome, you may consider expanding the trial to a different area, or slightly increasing your complexity.
This sends you back into the Plan phase and can be the beginning of the Ramp of Improvement. Juran Trilogy
The Trilogy consists of three sequential and logical groups of activities: – Quality Planning
– Quality Control – Quality Improvement All three processes are universal
– Applied to a particular process
– Performed by top management or by middle management
Juran Trilogy: A systematic and comprehensive system for break-through quality improvements Quality Defined: meet customer needs and freedom from deficiencies
Trilogy Components
– Quality Planning – discover customer needs and deficiencies and design adequate processes
– Quality Control -- compare actual performance to goals and take action on the differences – Quality Improvement -- the attainment of unprecedented levels of performance
Cause-and-Effect Diagrams - 1943 by Mr. Kaoru Ishikawa at the University of Tokyo
Purpose: One important part of process improvement is continuously striving to obtain more information about the process and it's output. Cause-and-effect diagrams allow us to do not just that, but also can lead us to the root cause, or causes, of problems.
Constructing the Cause-and-Effect Diagram:
Step 1: Select the team members and a leader. Team members knowledgeable about the quality. Team members focus on the problem under investigation.
Step 2: Write the problem statement on the right hand side of the page, and draw a box around it with an arrow running to it. This quality concern is now the effect.
Einstein College of Engineering
Step 3: Brain-storming. The team members generate ideas as to what is causing the effect.Step 4: This step could be combined with step 3. Identify, for each main cause, its related sub-causes that might affect our quality concern or problem (our Effect). Always check to see if all the factors contributing to the problem have been identified. Start by asking why the problem exists.
Step 5: Focus on one or two causes for which an improvement action(s) can be developed using other quality tools such as Pareto charts, check sheets, and other gathering and analysis tools.
Conclusion: Improvement requires knowledge. The more information we have about our processes the better we are at improving them. Cause-and-effect diagrams are one quality tool that is simple yet very powerful in helping us better understand our processes
Ten Principles of Customer/Supplier Relationship
1. Customer and supplier fully responsible for quality control 2. Customer and supplier must be independent and interdependent 3. The customer must provide clear information to the supplier
4. Proper understanding in quality, quantity, price, delivery and payments 5. Supplier must satisfy the customer need
6. Both must accept the evaluation in terms of quality and service 7. Contracts must be signed so the disputes can be settled amicably 8. Both must have exchange of information to improve quality and service 9. Both should strive for mutual satisfaction and good relationship
10. Both should think in the shoes of the end user. Partnering
Benefits
1. Improved Quality 2. Increase efficiency 3. Lower cost
4. Increase the opportunity for innovation
5. Continuous improvement of product and service Key Elements in Partnering
1. Long-term commitment 2. Trust
3. Shared vision
CONTRIBUTIONS OF CROSBY:
Crosby's approach to quality was unambiguous. In his view, good, bad, high, and low quality are meaningless concepts in the abstract; the meaning of quality is "conformance to requirements."
What that means is that a product should conform to the requirements that the company has itselfestablished based on its customers' needs. He also believed, that the prime responsibility
for poor quality lies with management, not with the workers. Management sets the tone for thequality initiative from the top.
Nonconforming products are ones that management has failed to specify or control. The cost of nonconformance equals the cost of not doing it right first time, and not rooting out any defects in processes.
"Zero defects" does not mean that people never make mistakes, but that companies should notbegin with "allowances" or substandard targets with mistakes as an inbuilt expectation. Instead,work should be seen as a series of activities or processes, defined by clear requirements andcarried out to produce identified outcomes. Systems that allow things to go wrong and thatresult in those things having to be done again can cost organizations between 20% and 35% of their revenues, in Crosby's estimation.
His seminal approach to quality was set out in Quality is Free, and is often summarized as the "Fourteen Steps."
1. Management commitment it: the need for quality improvement must be recognized and accepted by management, who then draw up a quality improvement program with an emphasis on the need for defect prevention. Quality improvement equates to profit improvement. A quality policy is needed which states that "...each individual is expected to perform exactly like the requirement or cause the requirement to be officially changed to what we and the customer
Einstein College of Engineering
really need."2. The quality improvement team: representatives from each department or function should be brought together to form a quality improvement team. Its members should be people who have sufficient authority to commit the area they represent to action.
3. Quality measurement: the status of quality should be determined throughout the
company. This means establishing and recording quality measures for each area of activity in
order to show where improvement is possible and where corrective action is necessary. Crosbyadvocated delegation of this task to the people who actually do the job, thus setting the stagefor defect prevention on the job, where it really counts.
4. The cost of quality evaluation: the cost of quality is not an absolute performance
measurement, but an indication of where the action necessary to correct a defect will result in greater profitability.
5. Quality awareness: this involves making employees aware of the cost to the company of
defects, through training and information, and the provision of visible evidence of the results of a concern for quality improvement. Crosby stresses that this sharing process is a key, or even the key, step in the progress of an organization toward quality.
6. Corrective action: discussion of problems will result in the finding of solutions and also bring to light other elements that are in need of improvement. People need to see that problems are regularly being resolved. Corrective action should then become a habit.
7. Establishing an ad hoc committee for the zero defects program: zero defects is not a
motivation program: its purpose is to communicate and instill the notion that everyone should do things right first time.
8. Supervisor training: all managers should undergo formal training on the Fourteen Steps before they are implemented. Managers should understand each of the Fourteen Steps well enough to be able to explain them to their people.
9. Zero defects day: it is important that the commitment to zero defects as the performance standard of the company makes an impact, and that everyone gets the same message in the same way. Zero defects day, when supervisors explain the program to their people, should make a lasting impression as a "new attitude" day.
10. Goal setting: all supervisors ask their people to establish specific, measurable goals that they can strive for. Usually, these comprise 30-, 60-, and 90-day goals.
11. Error cause removal: employees are asked to describe, on a simple, one-page form, any problems that prevent them from carrying out error-free work. Problems should be
acknowledged and begin to be addressed within 24 hours by the function or unit to which th begin to grow more confident that their problems will be attended to and dealt with.
12. Recognition: it is important to recognize those who meet their goals or perform
outstanding acts with a prize or award, although this should not be in financial form. The act of recognition itself is what is important.
13. Quality councils: the quality professionals and team leaders should meet regularly to discuss improvements and upgrades to the quality program.
14. Doing it over again: during the course of a typical program lasting from 12 to 18 months, turnover and change will dissipate much of the educational process. It is important to set up a
new team of representatives and begin the program again from the beginning, starting with zero defects day. This "starting over again" helps quality to become ingrained in the organization
CROSBY‘S four absolutes of quality:
1. The definition of quality is conformance to requirements. 2. The system of quality is prevention.
3. The performance standard is zero defects.
4. The measurement of quality is the price of nonconformance CONTRIBUTIONS OF MASAAKI IMAI:
Masaaki Imai is Founder of KAIZEN Institute (KI), which was established in Switzerland (1985) to help companies introduce KAIZEN® concepts, systems, and tools. KI (also now known as KAIZEN Institute Consulting Group- KICG) has offices in over 30 countries around the globe. Over the last 30+ years, Mr. Imai has held lectures on KAIZEN, Lean and other related management subjects, as well as having
Einstein College of Engineering
consulted with global companies (outside of Japan) and assisting them in their process of introducing change and continual improvement. KAIZEN Institute dispatches both local and global consultants, who are corporate managers and academics and considered experts in the various technicalities of KAIZEN, to various assignments to work closely with the local KAIZEN consultants. Mr. Imai‘s role has been oneof integrating various KAIZEN management practices, such as Just-in-time, TQM, and TPM,into the cultural environment of client companies. KAIZEN Institute regularly sponsors KAIZEN Tours, within Japan, Europe and other strategic locations where best practices can be found. .Kaizen is defined as making ―continuous improvement‖ - slow, incremental but constant. Western way of pragmatic approach ―why-fix-it-if-it-ain‘t-broke‖ Kaizen extends a more optimistic philosophical view: ―Everything—even if it ain‘t broke—can be made better!‖ "kai― > Means "change" or "the action to correct" "zen― > means "good― Importance is given to the process not the results, as Japanese believe that good process will deliver good results.
CONTRIBUTION OF FEIGENBAUM:
Armand Vallin Feigenbaum (born 1922) is an American quality control expert and businessman. He devised the concept of Total Quality Control, later known as Total Quality Management (TQM).
Feigenbaum received a bachelor's degree from Union College, and his master's degree and Ph.D. from MIT. He was Director of Manufacturing Operations at General Electric (1958-1968), and is now President and CEO of General Systems Company of Pittsfield, Massachusetts, an engineering firm that designs and installs operational systems. Feigenbaum wrote several books and served as President of the American Society for Quality (1961-1963).
His contributions to the quality body of knowledge include:
"Total quality control is an effective system for integrating the quality development, quality maintenance, and quality improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization so as to enable production and service at the most economical levels which allow full customer satisfaction."
The concept of a "hidden" plant—the idea that so much extra work is performed in correcting mistakes that there is effectively a hidden plant within any factory.
Accountability for quality: Because quality is everybody's job, it may become nobody's job—the idea that quality must be actively managed and have visibility at the highest levels of management.
The concept of quality costs TAGUCHI’S CONTRIBUTION:
Genichi Taguchi is a Japanese quality expert, known for the Quality Loss Function and for methodologies to optimise quality at the design stage – ―robust design‖. Taguchi received formal recognition for his work including Deming Prizes and Awards.
Genichi Taguchi considers quality loss all the way through to the customer, including cost of scrap, rework, downtime, warranty claims and ultimately reduced market share.
Genichi Taguchi's Quality Loss Function
The Quality Loss Function gives a financial value for customers' increasing dissatisfaction as the product performance goes below the desired target performance. Equally, it gives a financial value for increasing costs as product performance goes above the desired target performance. Determining the target performance is an educated guess, often based on customer surveys and feedback.
Einstein College of Engineering
The quality loss function allows financial decisions to be made at the design stage regarding the cost of achieving the target performance.Quality through Robust Design Methodology
Taguchi methods emphasised quality through robust design, not quality through inspection. Taguchi breaks the design process into three stages:
1. System design - involves creating a working prototype
2. Parameter design - involves experimenting to find which factors influence product performance most
3. Tolerance design - involves setting tight tolerance limits for the critical factors and looser tolerance limits for less important factors.
Taguchi‘s Robust Design methodologies allow the designer through experiments to determine which factors most affect product performance and which factors are unimportant.
The designer can focus on reducing variation on the important or critical factors. Unimportant or uncontrollable ―noise‖ factors have negligible impact on the product performance and can be ignored. Robust Design of Cookies
This is easier explained by example. If your business makes cookies from raw ingredients, there are many possible factors that could influence the quality of the cookie - amount of flour, number of eggs, temperature of butter, heat of oven, cooking time, baking tray material etc.
With Genichi Taguchi‘s Robust Design methodologies you would set up experiments that would test a range of combinations of factors - for example, high and low oven temperature, with long and short cooking time, 1 or 2 eggs, etc. The cookies resulting from each of these trials would be assessed for quality.
A statistical analysis of results would tell you which the most important factors are, for example oven temperature affects cookie quality more than the number of eggs. With this knowledge you would design a process that ensures the oven maintains the optimal temperature and you would be able to consistently produce good cookies.
5S PRINCIPLES:
The 5S framework was originally developed by just-in-time expert and international consultant Hiroyuki Hirano. The 5S framework is an extension of Hirano's earlier works on just-in-time production systems. The 5Ss represent a simple "good housekeeping" approach to improving the work environment consistent with the tenets of Lean Manufacturing System.
It promotes daily activity for continuous improvement. It fosters efficiency and productivity while improving work flow. It encourages a proactive approach that prevents problems and waste before they occur. It provides a practical method for dealing with the real problems that workers face every day. And it fits with a facility's other efforts, such as total preventive maintenance, just-in-time manufacturing, pollution prevention, safety initiatives, and lean manufacturing efforts.
SEIRI / SORT / CLEANUP:
The first step of the "5S" process, Seiri, refers to the act of throwing away all unwanted, unnecessary, and unrelated materials in the workplace. People involved in Seiri must not feel sorry about having to throw away things. The idea is to ensure that everything left in the workplace is related to work. Even the number of necessary items in the workplace must be kept to its absolute minimum.
Einstein College of Engineering
There are two main objectives of Seiri; first is the simplification of tasks and effective use of space. In performing Seiri, this simple guideline is a must:1. Separate needed items from unneeded items. 2. Remove unneeded items from working areas. 3. Discard the items never used.
4. Store items not Item not needed now.
5. Remove all excess items from working areas, including work pieces, supplies, personal items, tools, instruments, and equipment.
6. Use red tag to get rid of unneeded items.
7. Store items needed by most people in a common storage area.
8. Store items only needed by each individual in his/her own working area. 9. Organize working / storage area.
SEITON / SET IN ORDER / ARRANGING:
Seiton, or orderliness, is all about efficiency. This step consists of putting everything in an assigned place so that it can be accessed or retrieved quickly, as well as returned in that same place quickly. If everyone has quick access to an item or materials, work flow becomes efficient, and the worker becomes
productive. Every single item must be allocated its own place for safekeeping, and each location must be labeled for easy identification of what it's for.
Its objective includes; the needed items can be easily found, stored and retrieved, supports efficiency and productivity, First-in first-out (FIFO), and save space and time.
In performing Seiton, follow these guidelines:
1. A place for everything and everything in its place.
2. Place tools and instructional manual close to the point of use. 3. Store similar items together. Different items in separate rows. 4. Don't stack items together. Use rack or shelf if possible. 5. Use small bins to organize small items.
6. Use color for quickly identifying items.
7. Clearly label each item and its storage areas (lead to visibility). 8. Use see-through cover or door for visibility.
9. Use special designed cart to organize tools, jigs, measuring devices, etc., that are needed for each particular machine.
SEISO / SHINE / NEATNESS
Seiso, the third step in "5S", says that 'everyone is a janitor.' Seiso consists of cleaning up the workplace and giving it a 'shine'. Cleaning must be done by everyone in the organization, from operators to
managers. It would be a good idea to have every area of the workplace assigned to a person or group of persons for cleaning. Seiso is not just cleaning, but a whole attitude that includes ensuring everything is in perfect condition. Everyone should see the 'workplace' through the eyes of a visitor - always thinking if it is clean enough to make a good impression.
Its objective includes; cleanliness ensures a more comfortable and safe working place, cleanliness will lead to visibility so as to reduce search time and cleanliness ensures a higher quality of work and products.
Follow these guidelines in performing Seiso:
Einstein College of Engineering
2. Investigating the causes of dirtiness and implement a plan to eliminate the sources of dirt.3. Cover around cords, legs of machines and tables such that dirt can be easily and quickly removed. 4. Operators clean their own equipment and working area and perform basic preventive
maintenance.
5. Keep everything clean for a constant state of readiness. SEIKETSU / SYSTEMIZE / DISCIPLINE:
The fourth step of "5S", or seiketsu, more or less translates to 'standardized clean-up'. It consists of defining the standards by which personnel must measure and maintain 'cleanliness'. Seiketsu
encompasses both personal and environmental cleanliness. Personnel must therefore practice 'seiketsu' starting with their personal tidiness. Visual management is an important ingredient of seiketsu. Color-coding and standardized coloration of surroundings are used for easier visual identification of anomalies in the surroundings. Personnel are trained to detect abnormalities using their five senses and to correct such abnormalities immediately.
The guidelines include:
1. Removing used, broken, or surplus items from the work area
2. Making safety a prime requirement by paying attention to noise, fumes, lighting, cables, spills, and other aspects of the workplace environment
3. Checking that items are where they should be
4. Listening to the "voice" of the process and being alert to things such as unusual noises 5. Ensuring that there is a place for everything and that everything is in its place
6. Wearing safe working apparel and using safe equipment
7. Minimizing all waste and the use of valuable resources such as oil, air, steam, water, and electricity
SHITSUKE / SUSTAIN / ON-GOING IMPROVEMENT:
The last step of "5S", Shitsuke, means 'Discipline.' It denotes commitment to maintain orderliness and to practice the first 4 S as a way of life. The emphasis of shitsuke is elimination of bad habits and constant practice of good ones. Once true shitsuke is achieved, personnel voluntarily observe cleanliness and orderliness at all times, without having to be reminded by management.
The characteristic of 5S tends to overlap significantly rather than cover very different subjects. Rather than worry about what fits into Seiri and what fits into Seiton, use them to reinforce each other and implement the whole thing.
QUALITY CIRCLE
Quality Circle is a small group of 6 to 12 employees doing similar work who voluntarily meet together on a regular basis to identify improvements in their respective work areas using proven techniques for analysing and solving work related problems coming in the way of achieving and sustaining excellence leading to mutual upliftment of employees as well as the organisation. It is "a way of capturing the creative and innovative power that lies within the work force".
CONCEPT
The concept of Quality Circle is primarily based upon recognition of the value of the worker as a human being, as someone who willingly activises on his job, his wisdom, intelligence, experience, attitude and feelings. It is based upon the human resource management considered as one of the key factors in the improvement of product quality & productivity. Quality Circle concept has three major attributes:
Einstein College of Engineering
a. Quality Circle is a form of participation management.b. Quality Circle is a human resource development technique. c. Quality Circle is a problem solving technique.
OBJECTIVE
The objectives of Quality Circles are multi-faced. a) Change in Attitude.
From "I don‘t care" to "I do care" Continuous improvement in quality of work life through humanisation of work.
b) Self Development
Bring out ‗Hidden Potential‘ of people People get to learn additional skills. c) Development of Team Spirit
Individual Vs Team – "I could not do but we did it" Eliminate inter departmental conflicts.
d) Improved Organisational Culture Positive working environment.
Total involvement of people at all levels. Higher motivational level.
Participate Management process. ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE
A Quality Circle has an appropriate organisational structure for its effective and efficient performance. It varies from industry to industry, organisation to organisation. But it is useful to have a basic framework as a model. The structure of a Quality Circle consists of the following elements.
i. A steering committee: This is at the top of the structure. It is headed by a senior executive and includes representatives from the top management personnel and human resources development people. It establishes policy, plans and directs the program and meets usually once in a month.
ii. Co-ordinator: He may be a Personnel or Administrative officer who co-ordinates and supervises the work of the facilitators and administers the programme.
iii. Facilitator: He may be a senior supervisory officer. He co-ordiates the works of several quality circles through the Circle leaders.
iv. Circle leader: Leaders may be from lowest level workers or Supervisors. A Circle leader organises and conducts Circle activities.
v. Circle members : They may be staff workers. Without circle members the porgramme cannot exist. They are the lifeblood of quality circles. They should attend all meetings as far as possible, offer suggestions and ideas, participate actively in group process, take training seriously with a receptive attitude.The roles of Steering Committee, Co-0rdinator, Facilitator, Circle leader and Circle members are well defined.
The Quality Circles also are expected to develop internal leadership, reinforce worker morale and motivation, and encourage a strong sense of teamwork in an organisation.
A variety of benefits have been attributed to Quality Circles, including higher quality, improved productivity, greater upward flow of information, broader improved worker attitudes, job enrichment, and greater teamwork.
Einstein College of Engineering
Problem quality circles often suffer from unrealistic expectations for fast results, lock of management commitment and support, resistance by middle management, resentment by non participants, inadequate training, lack of clear objectives and failure to get solutions implemented8D Methodology
8D is a problem-solving methodology for product and process improvement. It is structured into eight disciplines, emphasizing team synergy. The team as whole is better and smarter than the quality sum of the individuals. Each discipline is supported by a checklist of assessment questions, such as "what is wrong with what", "what, when, where, how much
1. Use Team Approach
Establish a small group of people with the knowledge, time, authority and skill to solve the problem and implement corrective actions. The group must select a team leader.
2. Describe the Problem
Describe the problem in measurable terms. Specify the internal or external customer problem by describing it in specific terms.
3. Implement and Verify Short-Term Corrective Actions
Define and implement those intermediate actions that will protect the customer from the problem until permanent corrective action is implemented. Verify with data the effectiveness of these actions. 4. Define and Verify Root Causes
Identify all potential causes which could explain why the problem occurred. Test each potential cause against the problem description and data. Identify alternative corrective actions to eliminate root cause. 5. Verify Corrective Actions
Confirm that the selected corrective actions will resolve the problem for the customer and will not cause undesirable side effects. Define other actions, if necessary, based on potential severity of problem. 6. Implement Permanent Corrective Actions
Define and implement the permanent corrective actions needed. Choose on-going controls to insure the root cause is eliminated. Once in production, monitor the long-term effects and implement additional controls as necessary.
7. Prevent Recurrence
Modify specifications, update training, review work flow, improve practices and procedures to prevent recurrence of this and all similar problems.
8. Congratulate Your Team
UNIT-3(STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL AND PROCESS CAPABILITY) Definition of Statistical Process Control (SPC) :
A method of monitoring, controlling and, ideally, improving a process through statistical analysis. Its four basic steps include measuring the process, eliminating variances in the process to make it consistent, monitoring the process, and improving the process to its best target value.
Control Charts:
Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts or process-behaviour charts, in statistical process control are tools used to determine whether or not a manufacturing or business process is in a state of statistical control.
A control chart is a statistical tool used to distinguish between variation in a process resulting from common causes and variation resulting from special causes. It presents a graphic display of process stability or instability over time. Every process has variation. Some variation may be the result of causes which are not normally present in the process. This could be special cause variation. Some variation is simply the result of numerous, ever-present differences in the process. This is common cause variation. Control Charts differentiate between these two types of variation.
Einstein College of Engineering
One goal of using a Control Chart is to achieve and maintain process stability. Process stability isdefined as a state in which a process has displayed a certain degree of consistency in the past and is expected to continue to do so in the future.
.
There are two main categories of Control Charts, those that display attribute data, and those that display variables data.
Attribute Data: This category of Control Chart displays data that result from counting the number of occurrences or items in a single category of similar items or occurrences. These ―count‖ data may be expressed as pass/fail, yes/no, or presence/absence of a defect.
Variables Data: This category of Control Chart displays values resulting from the measurement of a continuous variable. Examples of variables data are elapsed time, temperature, and radiation dose. A control chart consists of:
Points representing a statistic (e.g., a mean, range, proportion) of measurements of a quality characteristic in samples taken from the process at different times [the data]
The mean of this statistic using all the samples is calculated (e.g., the mean of the means, mean of the ranges, mean of the proportions)
A center line is drawn at the value of the mean of the statistic
The standard error (e.g., standard deviation/sqrt(n) for the mean) of the statistic is also calculated using all the samples
Upper and lower control limits (sometimes called "natural process limits") that indicate the threshold at which the process output is considered statistically 'unlikely' are drawn typically at 3 standard errors from the center line
Types of charts
Chart Process observation Process observations relationships
Process observations type
and R chart
Quality characteristic measurement
within one subgroup Independent Variables
and s chart
Quality characteristic measurement
within one subgroup Independent Variables
p-chart Fraction nonconforming within one
subgroup Independent Attributes
†
np-chart Number nonconforming within one
subgroup Independent Attributes
†
c-chart Number of nonconformances within one
subgroup Independent Attributes
†
u-chart Nonconformances per unit within one
subgroup Independent Attributes
†
Construction of control chart for variables:
Step 1 - Determine the data to be collected. Decide what questions about the process you plan to answer. Refer to the Data Collection module for information on how this is done.
Step 2 - Collect and enter the data by subgroup. A subgroup is made up of variables data that represent a characteristic of a product produced by a process. The sample size relates to how large the subgroups are.
STEP 3 - Calculate and enter the average for each subgroup. Use the formula below to calculate the average (mean) for each subgroup and enter it on the line labeled Average in the data collection section
Einstein College of Engineering
n
D
p
i
i ^Central line
Limits
n
p
p
m i i
1 ^n
p
p
UCL
3
p
(
1
)
n
p
p
p
LCL
3
(
1
)
Step 4 - Calculate and enter the range for each subgroup. Use the following formula to calculate the range (R) for each subgroup.
Step 5 - Calculate the grand mean of the subgroup’s average. The grand mean of the subgroup‘s average (X-Bar) becomes the centerline for the upper plot.
Step 6 - Calculate average of subgroup ranges
Step 7 - Calculate UCL and LCL for subgroup averages Step 8 - Calculate UCL for ranges
Step 9 - Select scales and plot Step 10 - Document the chart Control Charts for attributes
When the quality controls have to focus on a quality characteristic hard or expensive to measure on a numerical scale, the control chart for attributes are a useful alternative.
Attributes concern quality characteristics which are able to be classified in two types, conform and not conform to specifications. What is called nonconforming means that the unit controlled is not conformed to standard on one or more of examined quality characteristics.
The goal of control charts for variable is still to control mean and variability of a process but here, we focus of number of nonconforming units or nonconformities in a population. Three types of charts exist. Their use depends on the production (which quality characteristic to control, how many to examine), the characteristic of controls (constant or variable sample size):
The p-chart: it is a control chart for fraction nonconforming
The c-chart: it is a control chart for number of defects or nonconformities
The u-chart: it is a control chart for number of nonconformities per unit It is so to choose the best adapted control chart to the production.
The p-chart: Control chart for fraction nonconforming
The focus of the chart is the ratio of the number of nonconforming units in a population over the total number of units in this population. This fraction is called ―p‖.
In general, m samples of n units are tested but the sample size can be either constant or variable. In the following, we study both cases.
1. For a constant sample size Mathematical notions
If the sample size is constant, the formula for the value plotted on the p-chart is:
The central line and control limits are computed as shown bellow: i i i
n
D
p
^where
p
^: fraction of nonconforming
D : number of nonconforming units in the i
thsample
Einstein College of Engineering
Central
line
Limits
m
c
c
m i
1c
c
UCL
3
c
c
LCL
3
Central line
Limits
i m i i m i in
x
u
1 1 _ in
u
u
UCL
_ _3
in
u
u
LCL
_ _3
To construct the p-chart, we plot the fraction nonconforming for each sample. The c-chart: Control chart for number of nonconformities observed
The focus of the chart is the number of nonconformities in a population. This number is called ―c‖ and is directly plotted on a c-chart. In this case again, m samples of n units are controlled and the sample size can be constant or not.
For a constant sample size Mathematical notions
The central line and control limits are computed as shown bellow:
The u-chart: Control chart for number of nonconformities per unit
The u- chart is often used for controls where the sample size is variable. It consists plotting the number of nonconformities per unit tested.
Mathematical notions
Here are formulas for control chart characteristics:
i i i
n
x
u
where u : average nonconformities per unit
x : number of total nonconformities in a
sample
Einstein College of Engineering
Process Capability:Process capability can be defined as the ability of a process to produce more uniform products with little variations.
Process capability compares the output of an in-control process to the specification limits by using capability indices. The comparison is made by forming the ratio of the spread between the process specifications (the specification "width") to the spread of the process values, as measured by 6 process standard deviation units (the process "width").
Six Sigma concepts:
Six Sigma has evolved over the last two decades and so has its definition. Six Sigma has literal, conceptual, and practical definitions.
Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality improvement initiatives include – A clear focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable financial returns from any project. An increased emphasis on strong and passionate management leadership and support.
A special infrastructure of "Champions," "Master Black Belts," "Black Belts," etc. to lead and implement the Six Sigma approach.
A clear commitment to making decisions on the basis of verifiable data, rather than assumptions and guesswork.
At Motorola University, we think about Six Sigma at three different levels: As a metric
As a methodology As a management system
Essentially, Six Sigma is all three at the same time. Six Sigma as a Metric
The term "Sigma" is often used as a scale for levels of "goodness" or quality. Using this scale, "Six Sigma" equates to 3.4 Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO). Six Sigma started as a defect reduction effort in manufacturing and then applied to other business processes for the same purpose.
Taking the 1.5 sigma shift into account, short-term sigma levels correspond to the following long-term DPMO values (one-sided):
One Sigma = 690,000 DPMO => efficiency 31% Two Sigma = 308,000 DPMO => efficiency 69.2% Three Sigma = 66,800 DPMO => efficiency 93.32% Four Sigma = 6,210 DPMO => efficiency 99.379% Five Sigma = 230 DPMO => efficiency 99.977% Six Sigma = 3.4 DPMO => efficiency 99.9997% Six Sigma as a Methodology
As Six Sigma has evolved, there has been less emphasis on the literal definition of 3.4 DPMO, or counting defects in products and processes. Six Sigma is a business improvement methodology that focuses an organization on:
Understanding and managing customer requirements
Aligning key business processes to achieve those require][plkvcments Utilizing rigorous data analysis to minimize variation in those processes Driving rapid and sustainable improvement to business processes
At the heart of the methodology is the DMAIC model for process improvement. DMAIC is commonly used by Six Sigma project teams and is an acronym for:
DMAIC - The basic methodology consists of the following five steps:
Define process improvement goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise strategy.
Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data.
Analyze the data to verify cause-and-effect relationships. Determine what the relationships are, and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered.
Improve or optimize the process based upon data analysis using techniques like Design of Experiments.
Einstein College of Engineering
Control to ensure that any deviations from target are corrected before they result in defects. Setup pilot runs to establish process capability, move on to production, set up control mechanisms and continuously monitor the process.
Total Productive Maintenance Total = Overall features for production
Productive = production of goods and services that meet expectation
Maintenance = Keeping the equipments and plant as good as new and working condition Goals of TPM
Maintaining and Improving equipment capacity Maintaining equipment for longer life
Using support from all areas of operation Encouraging input from all employees Continuous improvement
Improvement needs
Machines expected to fail at one point or another – minimise that risk Employees who use and work that machine give the first hand information
Six major loss areas in terms of time Downtime loss
1. Planned – i) start ups ii) Shift change iii) tea / lunch breaks iv) planned maintenance 2. Unplanned – i) Equipment breakdown ii) changeovers iii)lack of materials
3. Idling and minor stoppages 4. Slow downs
5. Process change 6. Scraps
Calculating Equipment Effectiveness
Downtime loss measured by equipment availability A = (T/P) X 100
A – availability, T – operating time (P – D), P – Planned operation time D- Downtime Performance efficiency
E = (CXN/T) X 100
E – Performance efficiency, C – Theoretical cycle time, N – Processed amount (qty) Rate of quality products
R = (N-Q/N)X 100
R – Rate of quality products, N = Processed amount Q – nonconformities
UNIT-4(TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR QUALITY MANAGEMENT)
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a way of making the 'voice of the customer' heard throughout an organization. It is a systematic process for capturing customer requirements and translating these into requirements that must be met throughout the 'supply chain'. The result is a new set of target values for designers, production people, and even suppliers to aim at in order to produce the output desired by customers.
QFD is particularly valuable when design trade-offs are necessary to achieve the best overall solution, e.g. because some requirements conflict with others. QFD also enables a great deal of information to be summarized in the form of one or more charts. These charts capture customer and product data
Einstein College of Engineering
gleaned from many sources, as well as the design parameters chosen for the new product. In this way they provide a solid foundation for further improvement in subsequent design cycles.QFD is sometimes referred to by other 'nicknames' - the voice of the customer (from its use as a way of communicating customer needs), or the House of Quality (from the characteristic house shape of a QFD chart).
History
The creation of QFD is generally attributed to Mitsubishi's Kobe shipyard in Japan. The original approach, conceived in the late 1960's, was adopted and developed by other Japanese companies, notably Toyota and its suppliers. In 1986 a study by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) revealed that 54% of 148 member companies surveyed were using QFD. The sectors with the highest penetration of QFD were transportation (86%), construction (82%), electronics (63%), and precision machinery (66%). Many of the service companies surveyed (32%) were also using QFD. Specific design applications in Japan range from home appliances and clothing to retail outlets and apartment layouts.
In the USA the first serious exponents of QFD were the 'big three' automotive manufacturers in the 1980's, and a few leading companies in other sectors such as electronics. However, the uptake of QFD in the Western world appears to have been fairly slow. There has been no survey comparable to the JUSE study regarding the spread of QFD in North America, and there are relatively few sources of literature and case studies, compared with other methodologies such as Benchmarking.
There is also some reluctance among users of QFD to publish and share information - much more so than with other quality-related methodologies. This may be because the data captured and the decisions made using QFD usually relate to future product plans, and are therefore sensitive, proprietary, and valuable to competitors.
Benefits of QFD
The main 'process' benefits of using QFD are:
improved communication and sharing of information within a cross-functional team charged with developing a new product. This team will typically include people from a variety of functional groups, such as marketing, sales, service, distribution, product engineering, process engineering, procurement, and production
the identification of 'holes' in the current knowledge of the design team
the capture and display of a wide variety of important design information in one place in a compact form
support for understanding, consensus, and decision making, especially when complex relationships and trade-offs are involved
the creation of an informational base which is valuable for repeated cycles of product improvement The main 'bottom line' benefits of using QFD are:
greater likelihood of product success in the marketplace, due to the precise targeting of key customer requirements
reduced overall design cycle time, mainly due to a reduction in time-consuming design changes. This is a powerful benefit: customer requirements are less likely to have changed since the beginning of the design project; and more frequent design cycles mean that products can be improved more rapidly than the competition
reduced overall cost due to reducing design changes, which are not only time consuming but very costly, especially those which occur at a late stage.
reduced product cost by eliminating redundant features and over-design. When to use QFD
QFD is a powerful tool that leads to significant improvements in product/process performances. However, it is not a short-term answer to product development problems. The method on which QFD is implemented may have a large impact on benefits derived and companies should take up QFD only after getting the consent and commitment of the team members.
QFD provides a systematic approach to build a team perspective on what needs to be done, the best ways to do it, the best order to accomplish the tasks proposed and the staffing and resources required to enhance customer satisfaction. It is also a good format for capturing and recording/documenting decision making. Applied through the Kaizen philosophy under Total Quality Control, QFD is the most highly developed form of integrated product and process development in existence.
Einstein College of Engineering
Strengths include:1. Enhanced customer satisfaction Listening to the voice of the customer Robust design
2. Shorter time to market
Reduced rework during development Creates team consensus and commitment 3. Reduced costs
Competitive benchmarking Concurrent Engineering Weaknesses
Targets set based only on the House of Quality, may be unrealistic
Customer requirements are a mix of functional requirements and customer attributes Sometimes customer influences may backfire
Success with QFD
Companies using QFD for product development have on the average, experienced: 50% reduction in costs
33% reduction in product development time 200% increase in productivity
Companies that have successfully applied QFD include Toyota, Honda, ICI, Black & Decker, Integrated Design Control Systems and Rover.
QFD – House of Quality
MEANING: The voice of the customer from the market research and various benchmarking is linked to the technicalities of the design and process of the product both new and existing.
DEFINITION: It is kind of conceptual map that provides a means of interfunctional planning and communication.
FEATURES:
- Concept of matrix and its correlation - Plan as per the voice of the customer - Focus on Customers need and technicalities - WHAT the Customer wants and HOW to do it - It is base tool for quality planning managers WHAT - Customer requirement and priority HOW – Technical description and priority
Relationship with WHAT and HOW the main area
Interrelationships – Roof the cause of concern and importance Step I – List customer requirement
―WHAT‖ – Decide Primary and secondary needs of the customer Step II – List technical descriptions “HOW”
Again primary and secondary is decided Primary – Material and Process
Subdividing materials and process required
Here current materials and process must be considered Step III – Relation ship matrix between WHAT & HOW
The crucial stage
Relating WHAT & HOW
Interlinking both primary and secondary No scope for variation
Points and grading is done here Gives results of WHAT and HOW Key elements are discussed
Einstein College of Engineering
Costing and current process must be consideredStep IV – Interrelation matrix between HOW’s
The materials and manufacturing is analyzed Ratings are done
Enables the decisions in the process Current process to be considered
Technical knowledge is a must for the analyst Step V – Our product with others
Analyzing competitors products customer expectation Difficult to get data
Mismatch in requirements is possible Helps in identifying customer trend Step VI – Technical Competitive assessment
Analyzing how the similar companies are handling To what they give importance.
Impact on technical process to meet the customers request. Step VII – Prioritize Technical Descriptors
Degree of technical difficulty Most needed change is decided Target value
Physical attributes to be considered
House of Quality Benefits
Orderly way of obtaining information Shorter product development cycle Considerably reduced start up cost
