TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT iii
LIST OF TABLES xvii
LIST OF FIGURES xix
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xxvii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 GENERAL 1
1.2 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH 4
1.3 SCOPE OF THE WORK 4
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 7
2.1 GENERAL 7
2.2 HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE 8
2.3 HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE 8
2.4 CORROSION 9
2.4.1 Effect of Chloride Ingress in Concrete 13 2.4.2 Mode and Mechanisms of Chloride Ion
Ingress in Concrete 13
2.5 IMPROVEMENT OF CONCRETE DURABILITY 14
2.5.1 Effect of Concrete Cover on Durability 14 2.5.2 Effect of Cement Replacement
Materials on concrete Durability 15 2.5.3 Effect of Cement Type on Concrete
2.5.4 Effect of Aggregate Properties on
Concrete Durability 16
2.5.5 Importance of Water Binder Ratio for a
Durable Concrete 17
2.5.6 Importance of Concrete Mix 18
2.5.7 Effect of Curing Methods 18
2.5.8 Effect of Concrete Cover Thickness on
Corrosion Initiation Period 19
2.6 CONCRETE DURABILITY TEST METHODS 20 2.6.1 Test Methods for Determination of
Durability Properties 21 2.6.2 Steady State and Non Steady State
Chloride Profile 22
2.6.3 Durability Test Parameters 23
2.6.4 Effect of Test Duration 23
2.6.5 Effect of Accelerating Voltage on
Chloride Profile 23
2.6.6 Temperature Variations During the
Test Period 23
2.6.7 Chloride Profile and Chloride Bindings
During the Test Period 24
2.6.8 Concrete Diffusion Co-efficients 25 2.6.9 Diffusion Co-efficient from Profile Method
and the Migration Co-efficient from
Colorimetric Method 26
2.6.10 Diffusion Co-efficient Based on RCPT 27 2.6.11 Initiation Period Based on Diffusion
2.6.12 Corrosion Initiation Period Based on
Chloride Diffusion Co-efficient 29 2.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHLORIDE
DIFFUSION RATE AND CHARGE PASSED
RATE 30
2.7.1 Model for Concrete Cover Cracking due to Rebar Corrosion in RCC Structures 31 2.7.2 Reinforcement Corrosion in Concrete
Structures, its Monitoring and Service
Life Prediction 32
2.7.3 Effect of Chloride Binding on Service Life
Predictions 33
2.7.4 Critical Review about Service Life Concepts of Reinforced Concrete
Structures 34
2.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS 35
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 36
3.1 MATERIALS 36
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 43
3.2.1 Diffusion Setup 44
3.2.2 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test Setup 47
3.2.3 Concrete Resistivity Test 48
3.2.4 Water Permeability Test 50
3.2.5 Polarization test 51
3.3 SPECIMENS DETAILS AND EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE 54
3.3.1 Casting and Curing Methods of Concrete Specimens 54
3.3.2 Preparation of Specimen for Diffusion
and RCPT Tests 54
3.3.3 Preparation of Specimen for Chloride
Diffusion and RCPT Tests 56
3.3.4 Preparation of Specimen for Polarization
Test 57
3.3.5 Specimen Details for Studying the Effect of Cover Thickness under
Accelerated Corrosion Test 60
3.3.6 Specimens Preparation with Concrete
Surface Coatings 61
3.3.7 Application of Coatings on Specimens 61
3.4 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS 64
3.4.1 Diffusion Test 64
3.4.2 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test 66
3.4.3 Concrete Resistivity Test 67
3.4.4 Polarization Test 68
3.4.5 Depth of Chloride Penetration in
Concretes at Marine Environment. 71
3.5 SUMMARY 72
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 73
4.1 GENERAL 73
4.2 DIFFUSION TEST VALUES 73
4.2.1 Chloride Profile 73
4.2.2 Effect of Concrete Grades on
Chloride Diffusion 75
4.2.3 Effect of Fly Ash on Chloride Diffusion
4.2.4 Effect of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) on Chloride Diffusion in Different Grades of
Concrete 78
4.2.5 Effect of Corrosion Inhibitors (CI) on Chloride Diffusion in M40 Grade
Concrete 79
4.2.5.1 Compressive Strength 79
4.2.5.2 Flexural Strength 82
4.2.5.3 Split Tensile Strength 84 4.2.6 Effect of Corrosion Inhibitors on
Chloride Diffusion 87
4.2.7 General Observations of Chloride Diffusion Values in Various
Concrete Types 90
4.3 RAPID CHLORIDE ION PENETRATION
TEST VALUES 90
4.3.1 Effect of Concrete Grades on RCPT 90 4.3.2 Effect of Fly Ash in Concretes of
Different Grades on RCPT 91
4.3.3 Effect of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) in Concretes of
Different Grades on RCPT 92 4.3.4 Effect of Corrosion Inhibitors (CI) in
Concretes of Different Grades on RCPT 93 4.3.5 General Observations of RCPT Values in
4.4 CONCRETE RESISTIVITY TEST VALUES 96 4.4.1 Effect of Concrete Grades on Resistivity 96 4.4.2 Effect of Fly Ash on Resistivity in
Different Grades of Concretes 96 4.4.3 Effect of Ground Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag (GGBS) on Resistivity in
Different Grades of Concretes 98 4.4.4 Effect of Corrosion Inhibitors (CI) on
Resistivity in Different Grades of
Concretes 99 4.4.5 General Observations of Resistivity
Values in Different Concrete Types 102
4.5 WATER PERMEABILITY TEST VALUES 102
4.5.1 Effect of Concrete Grades on
Water Permeability 102
4.5.2 Effect of Fly Ash on Water Permeability in Different Grades of Concretes 103 4.5.3 Effect of Ground Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag (GGBS) on Water Permeability in Different Grades
of Concretes 104
4.5.4 Effect of Corrosion Inhibitors on
Water Permeability 105
4.5.5 General Observations of Water Permeability Values in Different
Types of Concrete 108
4.6.1 Effect of Concrete Grades on Re-bar
Corrosion 108
4.6.2 Effect of Fly Ash on Re-bar Corrosion
in Different Grades of Concrete 110 4.6.3 Effect of Ground Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag (GGBS) on Re-bar
Corrosion in Different Grades of Concrete 111 4.6.4 Effect of Corrosion Inhibitors in
Concrete on Rebar Corrosion 112
4.6.5 Effect of Concrete Surface Coatings on
Corrosion Initiation Period 115
4.6.6 Effect of Concrete Cover Thickness and
Grades on Corrosion Initiation Time 118 4.6.7 Effect of Fly ash, Cover Thickness and
Grades of Concrete on Corrosion
Initiation Time 120
4.6.8 Effect of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), Cover Thickness and Grades of Concrete on Corrosion
Initiation Time 121
4.6.9 Effect of Corrosion Inhibitor, Cover Thickness and Grades of
Concrete on Corrosion Initiation Time 123 4.7 DEPTH OF CHLORIDE ION PENETRATION
IN DEFFERENT GRADES OF CONCRETE AT MARINE ENVIRONMENT 124
4.8 SUMMARY 126
5.0 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DURABILITY
5.1 GENERAL 130 5.2 CONSTITUTIONAL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN RCPT AND CHLORIDE
DIFFUSION 130
5.3 CONSTITUTIONAL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN RESISTIVITY AND RCPT 131
5.4 CONSTITUTIONAL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN WATER PERMEABILITY
AND RCPT 132
5.5 CONSTITUTIONAL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN WATER PERMEABILITY
AND RESISTIVITY 133
5.6 CONSTITUTIONAL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN CORROSION INITIATION TIME AND RCPT WITH VARIOUS
COVER THICKNESS 134
5.7 CONSTITUTIONAL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN CORROSION INITIATION
TIME AND RESISTIVITY 134
5.8 SERVICE LIFE ESTIMATION BASED ON
CHLORIDE DIFFUSION CO-EFFICIENT 135
5.9 SUMMARY 140
6 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING FOR
SERVICE LIFE ESTIMATION 141
6.1 GENERAL 141
5.2 SOFTWARE HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
6.2.1 Hardware Requirements 142
6.2.2 Software Requirements 142
6.3 INPUT PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR
MODELLING TO ESTIMATE SERVICE
LIFE OF RCC STRUCTURE 142
6.4 PREDICTING THE ACTUAL CORROSION
INITIATION TIME 144
6.5 ESTIMATION OF PROPAGATION PERIOD
AND SERVICE LIFE 145
6.6 EFFECT OF STEEL TYPES ON SERVICE
LIFE 145
6.7 EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON SERVICE
LIFE 145
6.8 DEVELOPEMENT OF SERVICE LIFE MODEL 146
6.9 SYSTEM FLOW DIAGRAM 148
6.10 DATA FLOW DIAGRAM 149
6.10.1 Single Input Module 149
6.10.2 Double Input Module 150
6.10.3 Triple Input Module 151
6.10.4 Four Input Module 152
6.11 CONSTRUCTION OF INPUT TYPES IN
THE MODULES 153
6.12 USER MANUAL 156
6.12.1 Service Life Estimation Model 156 6.12.2 Display Pattern and Operation of
Single Input Selection 158
6.12.3 Display Pattern and Operation of
6.12.4 Display Pattern and Operation of
Triple Input Selection 161
6.12.5 Display Pattern and Operation of
Four Input Selection 163
6.13 VALIDATION OF SOFTWARE MODEL
WITH THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 165
7 CONCLUSIONS 168
7.1 INTRODUCTION 168
7.2 CHLORIDE DIFFUSION 168
7.3 RAPID CHLORIDE PENTRATION VALUE 169
7.4 CONCRETE RESISTIVITY 170
7.5 WATER PERMEABILITY 171
7.6 ACCELERATED CORROSION
INITIATION TIME 171
7.7 DEPTH OF CHLORIDE ION PENETRATION
IN TIDAL ZONE 173
7.8 CORRELATIONS BETWEEN DURABILITTY PROPERTIES AND SERVICE LIFE
ESTIMATION 173
7.9 SERVICE LIFE PREDICTION MODEL 174
7.10 VALIDATION OF MODEL 174
7.11 CONTRIBUTIONS 174
7.12 SCOPE FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 174
REFERENCES 176
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 184
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
2.1 Existing Durability Test Methods 21
3.1 Test Carried Out on Raw Materials 36
3.2 Physical and Engineering Properties of Raw
Materials 37
3.3 Chemical Composition of Fly Ash 37
3.4 Chemical Composition of GGBS 38
3.5 Properties of Superplasticizer (As per the
Manufacturer) 38
3.6 Details of Concrete Mixtures with out
Admixtures 39
3.7 Details of Concrete Mixtures with Fly Ash 39
3.8 Details of Concrete Mixtures with GGBS 39
3.9 Details of Concrete Mixtures with Corrosion
Inhibitors 40
3.10 Details of Mix Proportions With out Mineral
Admixture 40
3.11 Details of Mix Proportion with Fly Ash 41
3.12 Details of Mix Proportion with GGBS 41
3.13 Details of Mix Proportion with Corrosion
Inhibitors 41
3.14 Compressive Strength of Different Mixes 42
3.15 Flexural and Split Tensile Strength of Mixes
with Inhibitors (28 days) 43
3.16 Corrosion Risk from Resistivity 49
3.17 Parameters Monitored in Polarization Test 53 3.18 Specimen Details for Studying the Effect of 60
Cover Thickness Under Accelerated Corrosion Test
3.19 Properties of Coating Materials 61
3.20 Consumption of Coating Materials Applied
Over Concrete Specimen Surface 64
3.21 Parameters Monitored for Diffusion Test 65
3.22 Parameters Monitored for RCPT Test 67
3.23 Details of Mixes Chosen for Preparation of Test
Specimens Placing in Tidal Zone 72
4.1 Depth of Chloride Penetration in Concretes of Different Types Exposed to Marine
Environment 124
4.2 Durability Properties of Concretes of Various Grades with Fly Ash and GGBS and Corrosion
Inhibitors 128
5.1 Service Life Estimation of Concrete of
Different Mixtures Based on Chloride Diffusion
Values 139
6.1 Details of Mixes chosen for validation 166
6.2 Durability Properties of Mixes studied for
validation Purposes 166
6.3 Comparison of Experimental Results of
Mix-Val-1 with the Data Obtained from the Model 166 6.4 Comparison of Experimental Results of
Mix-Val-2 with the Data Obtained from the Model 167 6.4 Comparison of Experimental Results of
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
2.1 Corrosion of Steel in Concrete by Chloride Attack
10
2.2 Service Life Model Design 11
3.1 Details of One Half of the Test Cell 45
3.2 Layout of Diffusion and RCPT Experiment Unit
45
3.3 Resistivity Measurement 49
3.4 German Water Permeability Apparatus Test Setup
50
3.5 Test Set Up for Polarization Experiment 52
3.6 Specimen Set for Polarization Study 53
3.7 Concrete specimens Cast Using Cylindrical Mould
55
3.8 Marking on the Specimen for Identity 55
3.9 Concrete Cylinders after 28 Days of Curing 56 3.10 Sizing of Specimen Using Diamond Saw
Concrete Cutter
56
3.11 Prepared Specimens with Markings for RCPT and Chloride Diffusion Tests
57
3.12 Steel Bars with Insulation Tape and Coated with Epoxy
58
3.13 Casting of Concrete Cylindrical Specimen with Re- Bars
3.14 Typical Details of Test Specimen 59
3.15 Specimens for Polarization Test 60
3.16 Preparation of Putty by Mixing Different
Ingredients 62
3.17 Application of Putty Over Specimen Surface 62
3.18 Specimens with Primer Coat 63
3.19 Surface Coating in Progress 63
3.20 Specimens with Three Types of Coating 64
3.21 Diffusion Test Setup 65
3.22 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test Setup 67
3.23 Measurement of Concrete Resistivity 68
3.24 Specimens Placed Under Polarization Test
(TMT bars) 70
3.25 Specimens Placed Under Polarization Test
(CRS bars) 71
4.1 Typical Chloride Profile of M25 Concrete 74
4.2 Chloride Profile of M40 Grade Concrete 75
4.3 Effect of Concrète Grades on Chloride
Diffusion 76
4.4 Effect of Fly Ash on Chloride Diffusion in
Different Grades of Concretes 77
4.5 Effect of GGBS on Chloride Diffusion in
Different Grades of Concretes 78
4.6 Compressive Strength of Concrete with
Calcium Nitrate Inhibitors at Different Ages 79 4.7 Compression Strength of Concrete with
4.8 Compressive Strength of Concrete with
Monothanolamine at Different Ages 81
4.9 Flexural Strength of Concrete with Calcium
Nitrate at the Age of 28 Days 82
4.10 Flexural Strength of Concrete with Sodium
Nitrite at the Age of 28 Days 83
4.11 Flexural Strength of Concrete with
Monothanolmine at the Age of 28 Days 84
4.12 Split Tensile Strength of Concrete with and without Calcium Nitrate at the Age of 28
Days 85
4.13 Split Tensile Strength of Concrete with
Sodium Nitrite at the Age of 28 Days 86
4.14 Split Tensile Strength of Concrete with
Monoethanolamine at the Age of 28 Days 87 4.15 Effect of Calcium Nitrate Inhibitors in
Concrete on Chloride Diffusion 88
4.16 Effect of Sodium Nitrite Inhibitors in
Concrete on Chloride Diffusion 89
4.17 Effect of Monoethanolamine Inhibitors in
Concrete on Chloride Diffusion 89
4.18 Effect of Concrete Grades on RCPT 91
4.19 Effect of Fly Ash on RCPT in Different
Grades of Concrete 92
4.20 Effect of GGBS on RCPT in Different
4.21 Effect of Calcium Nitrate on RCPT in
Concrete 94
4.22 Effect of Sodium Nitrite on RCPT in
Concrete (28 days) 95
4.23 Effect of Monoethanolamine on RCPT in
Concrete (28 days) 95
4.24 Effect of Concrete Grades on Resistivity 97
4.25 Effect of Fly Ash on Resistivity in Different
Grades of Concrete 97
4.26 Effect of GGBS on Resistivity in Different
Grades of Concrete 99
4.27 Effect of Calcium Nitrate on Resistivity in
Concrete 99
4.28 Effect of Sodium Nitrite on Resistivity in
Concrete 100
4.29 Effect of Monoethanolamine on Resistivity in
Concrete 101
4.30 Effect of Concrete Grades on Water
Permeability 102
4.31 Effect of Fly Ash on Water Permeability in
Different Grades of Concretes 104
4.32 Effect of GGBS on Water Permeability in
Different Grades of Concretes 105
4.33 Effect of Calcium Nitrate Inhibitor on Water
Permeability in Concrete 106
4.34 Effect of Sodium Nitrite Inhibitor on Water
4.35 Effect of Monoethanolamine Inhibitor on
Water Permeability in Concrete 107
4.36 Current Intensity for Concrete of M25 and M35 Under Accelerated Corrosion Test (29.5
mm cover thickness) 108
4.37 Effect of Concrete Grades on Corrosion
Initiation Time 109
4.38 Current Intensity of Concrete of M25 and M35 with Fly Ash as CRM Under
Accelerated Corrosion Test (29.5 mm cover
thickness) 110
4.39 Effect of Fly Ash on Corrosion initiation
Time in Different Grades of Concrete 111 4.40 Current Intensity of Concrete of M40 and
M60 with 40% GGBS as CRM Under Accelerated Corrosion Test (29.5 mm cover
thickness) 112
4.41 Effect of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag on Corrosion Initiation Time in
Different Grades of Concrete 113
4.42 Effect of Calcium Nitrate on Corrosion
Initiation Time in Concrete 113
4.43 Effect of Sodium Nitrite on Corrosion
Initiation Time in Concrete 114
4.44 Effect of Monoethanolamine on Corrosion
Initiation Time in Concrete 115
4.45 Condition of Un-Coated Specimens at the
4.46 Condition of Un-Coated Specimens Continued Till the Coated Specimens to
Reach the End of Corrosion Initiation Period 116 4.47 Condition of Coated Specimens at the End of
Corrosion Initiation Period 116
4.48 Current Vs Rime for Coated and Un-Coated
Specimens 117
4.49 Corrosion Initiation Period for Concrete
Specimens with and with out Coating 118
4.50 Effect of Concrete Cover Thickness on
Corrosion Initiation Time 119
4.51 Effect of Concrete Cover Thickness on
Corrosion Initiation Time in Different Grades 119 4.52 Effect of Fly Ash and Concrete Cover
Thickness on Corrosion Initiation Time 120 4.53 Effect of Fly Ash on Corrosion Initiation
Time in Concrete of Different Grades and
Cover Thickness 121
4.54 Effect of GGBS in Concrete and Cover
Thickness on Corrosion Initiation Time 121 4.55 Effect of GGBS on Corrosion Initiation Time
in Concrete of Different Grades and Cover
Thickness 122
4.56 Effect of Corrosion Inhibitor and Concrete Cover Thickness on Corrosion Initiation
4.57 Effect of Various Corrosion Inhibitors in Concrete and Cover Thickness on
Accelerated Corrosion Initiation Time 123 4.58 Chloride Ion Penetration Depth of Concretes
Placed in Tidal Zone 125
4.59 Comparison of Chloride Diffusion Values Arrived Based on Marine and Accelerated
Tests Conditions 126
5.1 Relationship Between RCPT and Chloride
Diffusion Values 131
5.2 Relationship Between RCPT and Resistivity
Values 131
5.3 Relationship Between Water Permeability
and RCPT 132
5.4 Relationship Between Water Permeability
and Resistivity 133
5.5 Relationship Between Corrosion Initiation
Time and RCPT 134
5.6 Relationship Between Corrosion Initiation
Time and Resistivity 135
5.7 Relation Between RCPT and the Corrosion
Initiation Time 139
6.1 Modules Pattern 148
6.2 Flow Diagram of Single Input Module for
Service Life Prediction of RCC Structures 149 6.3 Flow Diagram of Double Input Module for
6.4 Flow Diagram of Triple Input Module for
Service Life Prediction of RCC Structures 151 6.5 Flow Diagram of Four Input Module for
Service Life Prediction of
RCC Structures 152
6.6 Starting Screen of the Service Life Prediction
Model 157
6.7 Selection Screen for Input Data 157
6.8 Display Screen for the RCPT Selection
Mode 158
6.9 Display Screen After Entering the RCPT , Cover Thickness, Steel Type and the
Environmental Condition 159
6.10 Graphical and Numerical Results 159
6.11 Display Screen for the RCPT and Diffusion
Values Selection 160
6.12 Graphical and Numerical Results 161
6.13 Display Screen for the RCPT, Diffusion and
Resistivity Values Selection 162
6.14 Graphical and Numerical Results 163
6.15 Display Screen for the RCPT, Diffusion, Resistivity and Water Permeability Values
Selection 164
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
A - Ampere
ASTM - American Society for Testing Materials
BS - Black Steel Bar
cm - Centimeter
cm2 - Square centimeter
cm2/ sec - Square centimetre per second
CRM - Cement Replacement Materials
EC - Epoxy Coated Bar
CR - Corrosion Resistant Bar
DC(Q) - Chloride Diffusion based on RCPT
DC(R) - Chloride Diffusion based on Resistivity
DC(P) - Chloride Diffusion based on Permeability
Dc - Diffusion Coefficient
Env. - Environment
FA - Fly ash
Fig. - Figure
g - Gram
GGBS - Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag
HPC - High Performance Concrete
kg - Kilogram
M - Molarity
m2/ s - Square meter per second
Max. - Maximum
mA - milli Ampère
mmol/ cm3 s - milli mole per cubic centimeter second
mol/L - mole per liter
MA - Mineral Admixture
N - Normality
OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement
P - Permeability
Q - RCPT
RCPT - Rapid Chloride Permeability Test
R - Resistivity
SCM - Supplementary Cementing Materials
SP - Superplasticizer
SF - Silica Fume
SS - Stainless Steel Bar
Ti - Accelerated Corrosion Initiation Time
ACIT - Actual Corrosion Initiation Time
tp - Propagation Period
Sl - Service Life
Ta (Q) - Actual Corrosion Initiation Time based on RCPT
Ta (D)
-Actual Corrosion Initiation Time based on Chloride Diffusion
Ta (R) - Actual Corrosion Initiation Time based on Resistivity
Ta (P) - Actual Corrosion Initiation Time based on Permeability
V - Volt
w/b Ratio - Water-Binder ratio w/c Ratio - Water-Cement ratio
