Education Sector Development Framework Sector Study. Human Resource Management

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Education Sector Development Framework

Sector Study

Human Resource Management

ADB ADVISORY TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE

TA 4907-LAO

LAO PDR: SECTOR-WIDE APPROACH

IN EDUCATION SECTOR DEVELOPMENT

John Dewar Wilson

Khamhoung Sacklokham

July 2009

Cambridge Education Ltd Ministry of Education

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"This document has been prepared for the titled project or named part thereof and should not be relied on or used for any other project without an independent check being carried out as to its suitability and prior written authority of Cambridge Education (CE) being obtained. Cambridge Education accepts no responsibility or liability for the consequences of this document being used for a purpose other than the purpose for which it was commissioned. Any person using or relying on the document for such other purposes agrees, and will by such use and reliance be taken to confirm his agreement to indemnify Cambridge Education. (CE) for all loss and damage resulting there from. Cambridge Education (CE) accepts no responsibility or liability for this document to any party other than the person by whom it was commissioned."

"To the extent that this report is based on information supplied by other parties, Cambridge Education (CE) accepts no liability for any loss or damage suffered by the client, whether contractual or tortuous, stemming from any conclusions based on data supplied by parties other than Cambridge Education (CE) and used by Cambridge Education (CE) in preparing this report."

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Text Box 3 Legislative actions to implement ESDF recommendations implying HR Text Box 4 CDF recommendations for bridging capacity gaps of individuals Text Box 5 Current and alternative conceptualizations of HR in Laos PDR Table 1 Number and percentage of teacher training graduates by different

training routes projected for 2008

Table 2 Number of primary teachers in Lao PDR in 2005-6 by district and training category

Table 3 GOL PDR government spending on teacher salaries and percentage non-salary of total block grant recurrent expenditure by sector

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADB Asian Development Bank

AETC Administrator Education Training Center

ASEAN Association of South-East Asian Nations

ASLO Achievement of School Learning Outcomes

AusAID

Australian Assistance for International Development

BA Bachelor of Arts

BENC Basic Education in Northern Communities

BESDP Basic Education Sector Development Project

CB Capacity Building

CDF Capacity Development Framework

CEWED Center for the Promotion of Education for Women, Ethnic and Disabled

CPD Continuing Professional Development

CS Civil service/servant

CSOI Civil Service Organizational Improvement

CSM Civil Service Management

DEB District Education Bureau

DD Deputy Director

DG Director General

DHE Department of Higher Education

DNFE Department of Non-Formal Education

DOF Department of Finance

DoP Department of Organization and Personnel

DPC Department of Planning and Cooperation

DPP Department of Primary and Pre-School Education

DSE Department of Secondary Education

DTT Department of Teacher Training

DTVE Department of Technical and Vocational Education

EDP2 Education Development Project 2

EFA Education for All

EMTC Education Management Training Center

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ESDF Education Sector Development Framework

FOE Faculty of Education

FTI Fast Track Initiative

GIR Governance and Institutional Reform

GOL Government of Lao PDR

HE Higher Education

HEI Higher Education Institutions

HR Human Resource

HRD Human Resource Development

HRM Human Resource Management

ICT Information and Communication Technology

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

LABEP Lao-Australia Basic Education Project

LDC Least developed country

MDG Millennium Development Goals

MoE Ministry of Education

MOF Ministry of Finance

NESQAC National Education Standards and Quality Assurance Center

NFE Non-formal education

NGO Non-government organization

NSEDP National Socio-Economic Development Plan

NUOL National University of Lao

OCSC Office of the Civil Service Commission

OD Organization Development

OIC Organizational Improvement Committee

OJT On-the-job training

PA Pedagogical Adviser

PACSA Public Administration and Civil Service Agency

PDR Peoples Democratic Republic

PES Provincial Education Service

PhD Doctor of Philosophy

PIMS Project Information Management Systems

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PTR Pupil Teacher Ratio

RIES Research Institute for Educational Sciences

SDIE Social Development and Inclusive Education

SIDA Swedish International Development Assistance

SMATT Science and Mathematics Teacher Training

SOE State Owned Enterprises

SOJT Structured on-the-job training

SREAC Strategy Research and Education Analysis Center

TEED Teacher Education Evaluation Division

TEI Teacher Education Institution

TES Teacher Education School

TESAP Teacher Education Strategy and Action Plan

TL Team Leader

TOR Terms of Reference

TT Teacher Training

TTC Teacher Training College

TTEST Teacher Training, Enhancement and Status of Teachers project

TTS Teacher Training School

TUP Teacher Upgrading Project

TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

VEDC Village Education Development Committee

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report is on Human Resource (HR) implications of implementing the Education Sector Development Framework 2009-15 in Lao PDR. It was prepared between November 2008 and June 2009 after desk study, interviews with MoE, provincial and district staff including teachers and a visit to a northern province. It describes and analyzes the current educational and human resource situation in Lao PDR from access, quality and relevance, and

governance and management perspectives, addresses six ESDF-related targets for improvement and makes 20 recommendations, the gist of which are italicized in the text below.

The ESDF-related targets are:

1. Most students in society participating, progressing and achieving good standards within quality pre-primary, primary and secondary schools.

2. The ‘best’ people training as teachers and committing to a career in teaching. 3. A better educated and trained teaching force with greater pedagogical skills and

opportunities for professional development.

4. Better managed and better resourced primary and secondary schools. 5. A better managed education service at all levels.

6. Opportunities for greater numbers of school students and those in employment to progress to, and learn within, a variety of forms of post-school and continuing education.

Education in Lao PDR has still some way to go to ensure that all children enroll in school and complete five years of primary education. Currently around 20% of children do not enroll or attend regularly. Factors that prevent participation include lack of teachers in remote and ethnic communities, poverty that makes school fees unaffordable and attitudes that view schooling as offering little of relevance, especially for children with disabilities. Other factors are a variable teaching force in terms of academic qualifications and training, extremely limited resources for teaching and learning due to restricted government funding, and uneven quality of management at central, provincial, district, school and community levels. Low teacher salaries, poor conditions, and ineffective incentives may reduce the appeal of

teaching especially to graduates needed to staff six years of secondary schooling from 2009-10, notwithstanding that teachers have civil service status. However, this status is under review though options have not been canvassed. Ministry of Education (MoE) should set out in a paper advantages and disadvantages for the teaching profession of changing teachers’ status including the possibility of making them employees of provinces. Salaries should be increased to 2.5 times GDP by 2015 as in neighboring countries. ESDF proposes that all teacher trainees should receive scholarships. As this will increase competition for teacher training places better developed selection systems will be needed. Since few graduates enter teaching, research should illuminate the reasons why.

ESDF was developed in 2008 by senior MoE staff and national experts, assisted by

international consultants funded by European Union, Asian Development Bank and AusAid. It provides strategies and targets for achieving education for all and millennium development goals. It proposes scholarship provision for students from poor backgrounds at all stages. It

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also aims to improve quality and relevance of pre-primary, primary, secondary, technical, post-school and non-formal education in a variety of ways. Improved system governance and management are further targets. ESDF is accepted for World Bank Fast Track Initiative catalytic funding. When that and new development partner funding is secured MoE will decide what to implement. World Bank’s Capacity Development Framework was developed to provide assistance to development partners on what HR is needed.

ESDF is policy laden and implies 50+ legislative actions. All agencies in MoE have policy making functions. MoE is undertaking internal restructuring but lacks HR to assist line

managers to develop staff. Such a resource could also advise senior management on overall needs, including how to represent its own and the system’s interests in negotiations with other government departments and development partners. ‘Rationalizing’ meanwhile is in process, similarly unsupported at provincial and district levels which administer pre-school, primary and secondary schools, nominate teachers for training and deploy trained teachers in schools. MoE and PES should establish modern HR functions and TA should be sought to assist them to do so. University study of HR should be introduced.

Analysis suggests that major HR concerns relate to teacher recruitment, selection, deployment and training as well as system and institutional management. Problems of teacher supply stem from lack of overall management and MoE’s Department of Teacher Training should be given this responsibility. Incentives to work in remote and ethnic areas have proved ineffective. However ad hoc training programs for students recruited from these communities have met some supply needs and should be continued, with school managers also enabled to offer school leavers contracts for teaching posts, subject to post-training review. Many primary trained teachers are unable to obtain teaching positions, though a majority has qualified through a ‘quota’ route designed with this intention. They are denied ‘probation’ teaching to acquire qualified teacher status: arrangements should be made to ensure access to teaching positions for this purpose and to increase teacher mobility across Lao PDR. At present many teach as paid ‘contract’ teachers or as unpaid ‘volunteers’ for some years until a civil service position becomes available. Selection is expensive to apply for, and the process followed often involves a written test more suited for those entering administrative work. It appears to favor volunteers. Teachers have opportunities to ‘upgrade’ their academic qualifications and move to a higher salary scale, but professional

development opportunities are limited, of mixed quality, do not accumulate into a

professional qualification and are not recognized for salary purposes. National University of Lao PDR Faculty of Education should lead development of an accredited program of in-service education and training leading to a qualification that counts towards salary upgrading. Implementing ESDF implies system, institutional and individual development. System-wise the need is first to provide a more comprehensive picture of teacher supply, second to

increase the quality of the teaching force by offering incentives to encourage poorly educated and trained primary teachers to retire early, thereby creating posts for better educated and trained teachers, and ultimately making three years of training the norm after 12 years of schooling. The system also should reward head teacher and teacher performance with advances on incremental salary scale for developing schools to meet criteria for ‘schools of quality’. Training should equip school directors to provide on-the-job assistance with program and lesson planning to assist staff to develop more relevant local curricula of higher quality

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Institutions that support schools, such as MoE, PES and DEB have important monitoring and facilitating roles. With HR support as proposed they could model transparent selection and performance appraisal processes and advocate within government at all levels for more resources and a fairer financial deal for an education system that is advertised as the human resource development strategy that will raise Lao PDR from least developed country status by 2020. MoE too could articulate to development partners how projects can make use of modern HR strategies to promote workplace learning. Development partners could ensure that projects also incorporate more sophisticated HR models incorporating structured on-the-job training.

Investment in individuals with ‘multiplier’ potential who are able to exert positive influence in valued ways on others is an important strategy for system improvement. An extensive scholarship program will sponsor many for degree level professional qualifications and international study. Transparency in selection is essential. Knowledge management systems could assist managers to capitalize on learning, experience and skills acquired by others. Examples from recent development partner projects that have targeted a key strategic group – teacher educators - show what thoughtful project design, carefully and systematically implemented, can achieve for individuals, institutions and the system as a whole; they also show how management can harness or thwart learning thus acquired.

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1 COUNTRY CONTEXT 1.0 INTRODUCTION

The international Human Resource Management (HRM) consultant mobilized on 23 November 2008. His assigned task was to contribute to the development of the Education Sector Development Framework 2009-15 (ESDF) for Lao PDR. However as this task was almost complete Terms of Reference (TOR) were amended to those shown below. Flexible interpretation of these terms was agreed with ADB. Brief discussion of TOR and their fulfillment is in Section 1.1. Ministry of Education (MoE) in Lao PDR uses some standard Human Resource (HR) terms in distinctive ways. Sub-section 1.2 introduces key vocabulary.

1.1 TERMS OF REFERENCE

1.1.1 TOR 1: Review previous institutional capacity building activities and identify reasons behind limited impact so far achieved.

Lao PDR reluctance to invest in education – currently only around 6% of government

recurrent budget, less than half of regional neighbors though currently increasing (Tibi 2009) - explains the important role played by development partners in capacity building (CB). They include international development agencies, governments and Non Government

Organizations (NGO). In 2007/8 development partners contributed USD$ 52.18 million to Official Development Assistance for education (NSEDP 2008-9, Annex 4, p. 32).

Specific study was made of several ongoing and recently completed school and teacher education projects in Lao PDR: European Union’s Basic Education in Northern Communities (BENC) (2004-10), AusAid’s Lao-Australian Basic Education Project for Girls (LABEP) (2003-08), UNICEF’s Teacher Upgrading Project (TUP) (1992-20(2003-08), and Japan International Cooperation Agency’s (JICA) Science and Mathematics Teacher Training (SMATT) (2004-08). Willsher’s (2008) UNICEF funded review of in-service training provision was consulted and findings from World Bank (WB) (2009) on development needs of managers and

administrators at provincial and district levels.

Projects undoubtedly leave footprints and some shape the system and become incorporated into enhanced ‘normal practice’, such as new approaches to teacher training for students from ethnic backgrounds trialed by LABEP. However, assisting development is no easy task. Review of the above projects indicates several project features – some acknowledged by their managers, others not - that limited their effectiveness and impacted on capacity building. These are summarized in Text Box 1. The box shows that these include lack of coordination between development partners or between development partners and responsible government agencies, weak project design and/or implementation, or good design not realized in practice through weak implementation and lack of thoughtful exit strategies to promote sustainability. Projects also often operate only in sectors or districts of the country perceived by development partners to have special needs, thereby creating imbalances and complicating design of future projects. Projects often focus on upgrading skills of individuals, too without regard for the wider context in which these individuals

operate. Recognition of the need for a more coordinated approach to development work was reflected in the Vientiane Declaration (2006), ESDF and WB’s (2009) Capacity Development Framework (CDF). Project design needs to be informed by a broader concept of human resource development at both MoE and development partner levels.

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Text Box 1: Features of development partner projects that limit capacity building  Development partner provision has been project-based and often uncoordinated  Development assistance to ‘favored’ provinces and districts

 Focus on developing skills of individual teachers rather than of management capacity for schools as systems

 Reliance on off-the-job training models with insufficient follow-up into the teaching situation

 Limited range of training models

 Poor project design e.g. inadequate needs analysis, short-term or lack of evaluation  Adequate project design but poor implementation e.g. poor staff models

 Unclear criteria for developed practice

 Overload/lack of commitment of senior MoE managers and implementers  Weak trainers

 Lack of communication between projects resulting in overlap.

1.1.2 TOR 2: Assist MoE Organizational Improvement Committee (OIC) to develop policies to improve impact of capacity building (CB).

Organizational development (OD): OD is the process whereby an enterprise manages development of internal unit structures, job design and work allocation to achieve strategic objectives that enable it to perform more effectively within the context in which it operates. A Public Administration and Civil Service Agency (PACSA) oversees civil service (CS). It is responding to impact of globalization as reflected in ASEAN membership, greater

international links through tourism and the dynamic economy by seeking to improve CS efficiency through modernized personnel management incorporating ICT. It created a Lao PDR Civil Service Management (CSM) Strategic Framework in which the key strategic role of HR in improving organizational and individual performance is recognized. One aspect is reviewing structures and staffing at Ministry, provincial and district levels. MoE established an Organizational Improvement Committee (OIC) to review its structure. OIC is chaired by a Vice-Minister. It operates through a Steering Committee. MoE’s Department of Organization and Personnel (DoP), as Secretariat reviews strengths and weaknesses of current

arrangements not only within MoE but also at Provincial and District levels and National University of Lao (NUOL) and makes proposals. OIC may create Task Forces to examine specific issues. OIC’s recommendations are communicated to the Prime Minister who issues decrees for implementation. Changes within MoE include replacing Department of General Education in mid-2008 by line departments for Primary and Pre-Primary (DPP), Secondary (DSE) and Technical and Vocational Education (DTVE) and establishing new centers - including Center for Promotion of Education for Women, Ethnic and Disabled (CEWED) and National Education Standards and Quality Assurance (NESQAC). A Ministerial Decree of 4th

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place of a former Division of Department of Planning and Cooperation (DPC). It is understood that the current phase of restructuring is now ended.

HR consultants assisted DoP to prioritize ESDF proposals with HR and CB implications. In association with Governance and Institutional Reform (GIR) consultants, and with DPC support they assisted staff in SREAC and others within MoE to conceptualize policy

development, legislation and implementation processes for ESDF with specific reference to block grants.

17 provincial education services (PES) and 140 district education bureaux (DEB) have important administrative functions for secondary and primary education service delivery respectively. Provincial and district structures have not yet been realigned to new central arrangements. Provinces continue to have General Education sections for example. Lack of alignment may have implications for implementing ESDF.

PACSA established an OIC to conduct a pilot study to rationalize PES/DEB service provision. HR consultants visited one of six districts involved. Staff reported ways in which overlapping services could be rationalized. The pilot study was due to report in mid-March 2009.

1.1.3 TOR 3: Review the efficiency of Teacher Education Institutions (TEI) and Higher Education Institutions (HEI) including scholarships.

Efficiency relates to cost-effectiveness. Relevant factors include unit costs, program and staff quality, competition and program duplication between sectors and institutions, academic specialism and economic needs.

Unit Costs

TTEST (2006) was unable to reach conclusions about TEI unit costs because of inadequate financial records at all levels. WB (2007) reported that it cost 17 times as much to train a primary teacher as to educate a primary student - USD$ 173.3 compared to USD$ 9.9; it maintained that 80% of the total higher education budget is spent on teacher education. The calculation included scholarship costs. Tibi (2009) disputed whether scholarship costs should be included. He reported costs of primary education, teacher training and higher education for 2004 and 2005 as (kip ’000) 154.7 and 186.1, 1,027.5 and 1,382.6 , and 1,352.8 and 1,341.1 respectively i.e. a ratio of 1:7 for teacher training in each year and 1:9 and 1:8 for higher education, which is close to the developing country international norm of 1:10. Unit costs for primary and teacher training increased by approximately 20% between 2004-5 and 2005-6, while costs for higher education remained about the same. No explanation is

provided for this.

TEI and HEI

DTT funds and manages TEI though TTEST (2006) maintains that PES influence ethos. TEI comprise five Teacher Training Colleges (TTC) that offer training leading to a Diploma for teaching primary (grades 1-5) and lower secondary (grades 6-8), and three Teacher Training Schools (TTS) that train for primary and pre-primary.

Table 1 shows an MOE projection that 7,147 graduates for primary teacher training would emerge from teacher training institutions in Lao PDR in 2008. Of these almost three in four would be high school graduates who had taken one or three years of training, while the great

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majority of the remainder would be year 8 leavers who had taken three years of training. A small percentage of newly trained teachers with only five years of secondary education and trained over four years also qualified. It is understood that no new admissions are being accepted to this route to a teacher training qualification.

Table 1: Number and percentage of teacher training graduates by different training routes projected for 2008

2008 5+4 8+3 11+1 11+3 Total N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) Projected Teacher Training Graduates by Training Route 234 (3.3) 1,612 (22.6) 2,820 (39.5) 2,481 (34.7) 7,147 (100)

Source: World Bank (2007) Teaching in Lao PDR Vientiane, Ministry of Education, Table 8, p. 37

ESDF reported that 17,481 pre-service trainees were enrolled in 2007.The majority of trainees pay no course fees. Around half of all students receive scholarships of 70,000 kip per month to cover living expenses, but must pay registration, laboratory, teaching practice and other fees. Many students reside in dormitories. TEI’s earn additional income from ‘special course’ students who study a teacher training program in English part-time though few have an intention to teach. The number of such students increased five-fold between 2001 and 2006; in 2004-5 a total of 3,883 special course students were studying in TEI. DTT approves their fees and sets enrolment numbers. A proportion of income supplements salaries of those staff who teach them; MoE credits a TEI with the remainder and reduces maintenance payments accordingly. The system meets demand for a cheap part-time route to a post-school qualification in English for those who cannot get into a university. But it is inefficient. It adds significantly to the teaching load of staff that teaches English in particular and that wastes time teaching methods courses students do not need.

HEI comprises four universities and over 80 degree-awarding private colleges. MoE’s Departments of Higher Education (DHE) and Private Education (DPE) manage certain aspects of respective institutions. NUOL was established in 1990, Champasak in 2002, Souphanouvong in 2003 and Savannakhet in 2009. Over 90% of university students pay no tuition, laboratory or library fees; around 40% receive scholarships of 90,000 kip per month. DHE approves student numbers and fees for ‘special’ courses mainly in English, Business and Law - currently USD$ 100 for two semesters of study. (NUOL’s Faculty of Education (FoE) reported that it had more ‘special course’ students than degree course students in 2008-9). Private colleges receive no government support or special consideration, for example in regard to low interest loans for new buildings. Students pay fees; a few making good progress receive limited institutional support.

Program and Staff Quality in Teacher Education

Eleven full-time pre-service programs are offered (WB 2007) over one, two, three or four years. Entry is on the basis of completed school education. This may be judged inefficient when academic bridging courses might bring students to a common standard. There is evidence of duplication: in one TTS visited the same 8+3 program is being offered in 2009 separately to ethnic and non-ethnic teacher trainees. There are no in-service programs.

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TTEST (2006) estimated that, over the entire system accommodation the equivalent of one slightly smaller than average TEI was unutilized. It reported that half of 520 TEI staff in post in 2004-5 had BA degrees and less than 3% a Master’s degree. They taught an average of seven hours per week.

TTEST (2004) reported high internal efficiency with few students failing or dropping out, though that is not a sure guide to academic standards. Follow-up into employment data showed that many trained primary teachers do not apply for teaching positions. Many who wish to teach cannot find jobs and so cannot undertake the final stage of training viz. probation. The ‘quota’ category of students has restricted mobility as they are under obligation to teach in the ‘home’ province that nominated them.

Program and Staff Quality in Higher Education

The three established universities provide 3- or 4-year BA degrees, including a qualification for secondary teaching. NUOL has 1,059 staff, 52 with PhD and 384 with Master’s. An ambitious staff development plan is under way. It offers a PhD in Economics and 28 Master’s programs. It is claimed that there is little overlap with programs offered by new universities. In 2008 NUOL had 32,332 students – it also had 22,000 attending ‘special courses’. Little wastage occurs from drop-out or academic failure.

Most private HEI provide diploma and Bachelors’ courses in business, management, ICT and English. A few now offer Masters’ degrees. Their staff is often part-time, sourced from NUOL or business; most have Bachelor qualifications. Some private colleges in Vientiane Capital City claim to have difficulty filling places because their fees are expensive compared with those for special courses at NUOL.

There is little evidence on graduate employment. Senior staff at a prestigious secondary school in Vientiane Capital City and officials in MoE’s DoF complain that BAs never apply for posts. So perhaps most graduates do find work. In a limited labor market survey, Hough (2008) suggested that Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) should be expanded to increase the supply of skilled tradespersons, such as electricians and plumbers.

Conclusion

Tibi’s (2009) evidence indicates that unit cost ratios for primary, teacher training and higher education are similar to those internationally. Action to reduce costs in teacher training and higher education might involve reducing the number of programs and increasing student numbers within each, adjusting the balance between on- and off-campus study, such as lengthening teaching practice and investing in distance learning.

Although hard figures are lacking it would seem that public TEI and HEI could certainly be more efficient. Both train many students at government expense, many on government scholarships who decide not to teach. While there is no doubt some return to the nation on this investment it suggests a need to review post-school provision in general and admission policies for TEI in particular. Universities too train large numbers of ‘special course’ students at fees that private colleges cannot compete with. This is unfair to private colleges and seems likely to restrict their growth. Staff in higher education is relatively poorly qualified so that functions associated with the sector such as quality pre- and in-service training, post-graduate programs and research are not provided. A broader range of programs is required

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including more relevant to the developing Lao economy. For example there are few programs on food processing and mining.

HEI and TEI places are also on the whole currently accessible to children of more affluent parents who can support their secondary schooling and taking of entrance examinations. Children from poorer families may access higher education through quotas, but participation in teacher training especially still involves significant costs; only a few from remote and ethnic areas have access to such opportunities. ESDF proposes providing scholarships from 2010 to assist poor students to complete upper primary and secondary schooling. If implemented this could equalize access opportunities.

1.2 HR TERMS AND THEIR MEANING IN LAO PDR 1.2.1 Human Resource Development (HRD)

The Education Law of Lao PDR of 17 July 2007, article 4 states: ‘Education is central for human resource development’. Education is defined to include early childhood education, general education, vocational and higher education. (Interestingly non-formal education (NFE) is not mentioned). The definition implies, as is common in this sub-region of Asia that HRD is equated with learning by those within, or about to enter formal education. The Education for All Mid-Decade Assessment (2005) regards Integrated Vocational Education and Training (IVET) as the main national HRD strategy. The western concept of HRD is different. It relates to all learning engaged in over the lifespan on a continuous basis in a wide range of contexts, including especially the workplace, to develop expertise and performance quality. It also includes organization development (OD), career development and talent management. Strategic HRM sees development and deployment of HR as the key to organizational success. PACSA appears to have such a conception. MoE’s conception of HR appears to be similar to that of managers of State-Owned Enterprises in Lao PDR: keeping personnel records, recruitment and salary administration (Quang and Thavisay 1999).

MoE is the government agency responsible for managing and providing HRD through school and post-school institutions. DoP is responsible for HR functions for office staff at ministry, province and district levels as well as school directors and administrators. DoP’s Division of Legislation and HRD has two functions: its legislation function is processing decrees,

regulations and other instruments for enforcing policies, while HRD maintains records of staff on national and international training.

MoE’s DPC has been tasked with advising government on international scope of HRD.

1.2.2 Human Resource Management (HRM)

DoP has a Division of HRM and Incentives. HRM is responsible for what is described as recruitment and deployment of teachers, staff management, promotion and transfer. However, staff are engaged on clerical tasks that are outcomes of processes managed elsewhere. Recruitment is entering on a data base names of PACSA-approved newly appointed CS; promotion confirming that a CS may progress on the bi-annual incremental scale.

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1.2.3 Continuing professional development (CPD)

CPD refers to maintaining currency and enhancing learning for professional roles

subsequent to completion of pre-service training and probation. In some countries, renewal of a license to practice as a professional depends upon providing evidence of CPD. There is no professional registration in Lao PDR. A concept of teacher competency exists in The National Charter of Teacher Competencies developed in 2007.

1.2.4 Capacity building (CB) and capacity development (CD)

Many projects including WB (2009) refer to CB/CD. An explanation of CB is in WB (2001): ‘Effective CB involves …effective training…(supported by)…an appropriate working

environment…compris(ing) a well-managed and well-led office with appropriate facilities and equipment where workplace competency can be developed through problem solving,

drawing on knowledge and skills acquired from training supplemented by coaching and other forms of constructive supervision. CB also depends upon effective recruitment, succession management, remuneration and promotion systems’. WB (2001) concluded that cascade training was not effective, that addressing salary and conditions of service was key to trainees putting into practice what they learned from pre- and in-service training, that induction programs should be provided for all staff moving into new management positions, and that monitoring and evaluation of CB efforts was required at all levels. (Tibi 2007) The distinctive MoE usage of HR terms is important to bear in mind. In this report these terms are used in an international sense.

1.3 CONCLUSION

This section has described some aspects of the country context in relation to TOR. The next section provides a situational analysis of the education sector in Lao PDR.

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2 SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS 2.0 INTRODUCTION

ESDF targets for education relate to improved access, quality and relevance, and

governance and management. This section first describes education in Lao PDR under these headings from an HR perspective. It then analyses strengths and weaknesses of current arrangements.

2.1 THE SITUATION OF EDUCATION IN LAO PDR 2.1.1 Access

Access refers to processes by which people gain admission to, and take advantage of, a particular service or role. It comprises recruitment and selection. Recruitment is creating awareness of an available opportunity and the criteria for accessing it; selection is the

process whereby applications from those who wish to access that opportunity are considered and judgments made as to who should be allowed to do so. Decisions may or may not be based on advertised criteria. Access includes non-access which may reflect lack of provision, unwillingness to take advantage of an access opportunity, or non-success in meeting access criteria. It also includes affirmative action to enable individuals or groups who would normally not be regarded as eligible to access a particular role or context. Support for access in

financial terms e.g. scholarships or stipends or material support e.g. food and lodging may be intrinsic to access for certain categories of people.

Access is considered here first in relation to educational opportunity, and then in relation to accessing employment in the education service.

2.1.2 Access to educational opportunity 2.1.2.1 Pre-school education

Though universal pre-school provision is a goal, access is restricted since it is available mainly in urban areas. Less than 15% of children are enrolled nationally in various types of facilities. Access is determined by parents’ ability to pay. Fees in one pre-school visited were 30,000 kip per month. (USD$ 1=Kip 8,500 in March 2009).

2.1.2.2 Primary school location

ESITC estimates that there are 10,533 villages in Lao PDR, many situated in remote areas in a country half as big as France and with a population of around six million. They vary greatly in terms of size, permanence, accessibility, wealth and facilities. Around 8,800 villages have primary schools or schools within 1-2 kilometers that 6-year olds may be expected to walk to. Small settlements have only a few school age children in each age group, causing two or three grades to be placed with one teacher in multi-grade classes. 4,500 schools consist of one to two classrooms and are, with three to four classroom schools, designated as

‘incomplete’. Recruitment of students to school, especially primary is often influenced by its location in relation to home. The greater the distance the less attractive a school may be. Access to primary 1 is restricted for a sizeable number of pupils in Lao PDR because of lack of a local school; ‘incomplete’ schools may necessitate a change of school to one in a different village that may be a further deterrent to recruitment.

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2.1.2.3 Participation in school

It is estimated that around one in five children in Lao PDR do not participate in school. The main groups of non-participating children are, first, those in remote and ethnic non-Lao speaking communities with no or difficult access to schools; second, those in communities with school access, whose parents are poor and need their children, especially girls for paid or unpaid work, and, third, those children with disabilities whose parents keep them at home. Access to school depends upon parents’ ability to pay a registration fee for each child, and contribute to school funds at varying rates dependent upon school status and number of siblings enrolled. The poorest parents may secure a certificate of fee exemption from a village headman. Parents often do not enroll their child at ‘normal’ school start age of six, however, so that grade 1 classes often include multi-age children. Many children also do not attend regularly and a considerable number cease to attend, especially between years 1 and 2 but also subsequently, though some are re-enrolled later. For poor parents fees are likely to be a factor in non-enrolment and drop-out; however parents may also decide not to send their children to school for other reasons. These may include a perception that it has little to offer their children or that its opportunity costs are greater than alternative deployments. Thus failure to recruit students may reflect on the education service’s inability to demonstrate to parents the benefits of schooling for all children.

2.1.2.4 Progression in school

Selection for admission to each successive year of primary school is based on the criterion of passing tests set by teachers and DEB staff. Poor test performance results in a pupil

repeating the grade. Parents may interpret test failure and repetition as their child’s inability to learn or poor teaching and a waste of money. Some may withdraw them. The

consequence is that many children do not complete five years of primary schooling. Of those who do, the average time taken is eight years. ‘Progressive’ promotion has been proposed whereby ‘remedial’ teaching would assist poor test performers to meet criteria for admission to the following year enabling them to progress.

2.1.2.5 Secondary education

Secondary schools (currently grades 6-8 lower secondary and 8-11 upper secondary (8-12 from 2009-10)) are located in more populous urban areas. Some lower secondary schools are attached to primaries. Completion of grade 5 primary education marks the end of schooling for many children, but EFA (2008) reported that 77.6% of grade 5 students transferred to grade 6 in 2005-6. Selection for secondary is on the basis of two criteria: successful test performance at primary and fees. Progression between grades within secondary is similarly test related. Within the proposed 12 year secondary schooling a technical/vocational stream will be offered alongside the academic after grade 9. Criteria for selection for this new stream have yet to be clarified.

2.1.2.6 Boarding schools

There are boarding schools for gifted and ethnic children. The former - in Vientiane Capital City and LuangPrabang - are administered by DSE and offer general courses, but an

enriched curriculum is planned. NUOL also provides a school for talented students. Selection is based on test performance. Students are supported by scholarships awarded by Japanese NGO and other agencies. Access to ethnic boarding schools exists in each district and

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province. Selection is based on ability as well as social and personal ‘need’ as identified by teachers, school directors and DEB/PES staff. Each child receives an allowance of 200,000 kip per month. There are three national ethnic boarding schools, one each in Oudomsay, Savannakhet and Pakse. NUOL also has a centre for ethnic students. Selection is based on academic performance; scholarship support is provided.

2.1.2.7 Recruitment to post-school education

Around 8% of an age cohort – 45,000 pupils - completes secondary school grade 11. There are places in post-school education available for only half that number. Qualifications are greatly prized in Lao PDR. Consequent high demand has led to the establishment of new universities, growth in the number of private colleges and increased teacher training places. Most institutions advertise in the media; brochures set out programs available.

2.1.2.8 Access to post-school education

Students successfully completing grade 8 are eligible to be nominated by school and/or DEB to PES to become a provincial ‘quota’ student. Such nomination virtually guarantees the student a ‘free’ place with a scholarship to cover most living costs at one of 18 Technical and Vocational colleges or eight TEI. ‘Quotas’ are an important form of sponsorship at provincial level in Lao education. The number of quota places on offer for the education service each year is determined by PACSA and communicated to the PES of each province by DoP. PES nominates students up to its quota. However, the proportion of students to be admitted to teacher training as quota students in different TEI each year is decided by Department of Teacher Training’s (DTT) Department of Pre-Service Training in MoE. It is currently 50%. How a student accesses a quota position is not clear. TTEST (2004) studied quota teacher trainee selection in two provinces. Its report did not indicate whether quota places and conditions are advertised. Ignorance of bond conditions is one possible reason for their often reported flouting. School principals, DEB and PES staff appear to play some part in recruiting students. It is understood that students have to apply for a quota place, although the nature of the application form was not identified, nor any required supporting evidence, such as referees’ reports. Selection appears to be based on application and interview though height and physical fitness criteria were also stipulated. Academic performance per se does not appear to be a crucial factor; the quota system is represented as the provincial means of enabling children from poor and ethnic backgrounds to secure higher education and to meet the province’s future needs for trained public servants since a condition of acceptance is that the nominee will return to work for the province. However, PES/DEB staff interviewed by this consultant agreed that allocation to a program of study is usually based on academic merit with teaching being for the least able. In the event of a nominee turning down the program offered a replacement is found.

An alternative to entry by sponsorship is the entrance examination. Individual TEI and TVET conduct entrance examinations in urban centers in their catchment area. The examinations are set and marked by staff. Successful examinees are exempted from fees. TEI have the final say on admitting students by either quota or examination route.

Entrance to university and to certain TEI programs is by quota or examination after successful completion of year 11. NUOL entrants have a Foundation Year to enable all to reach a common standard prior to embarking on undergraduate programs.

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Admission to private colleges is on the basis of secondary school completion, success in an entrance examination and ability to pay fees.

2.1.2.9 Special course students

These students are often in employment. Admission is on the basis of academic qualifications and ability to pay. Since a numerus clausus is set by MoE departments admission may also be on the basis of a selection test, but it is also known that there is often a discrepancy between numbers officially sanctioned and those admitted.

2.1.2.10 Nayobay students

Nayobay students are special case admissions who are entitled to a free place in a program within a higher education institution of their choice on the basis of their family’s position in society. They include sons and daughters of national heroes, military, senior Party figures etc. TTEST (2004) reported that they constituted up to 45% of students at some TEI in 2002-3. It is not clear whether they qualify for scholarships or not.

2.1.2.11 Progression within post-school education

Admission to succeeding years of study is based on successful performance in internal examinations. ‘Wastage’ is low because students have several opportunities to re-sit examinations. Drop-out is also reported to be low.

2.1.2.12 International training

Opportunities for post-graduate study in Lao PDR were limited in the past. However,

between 2000 and 2007 up to 25 countries offered Lao citizens international scholarships. A total of 6,288 persons studied overseas in these years, including 26 who obtained PhD and 368 a Master’s degree. Vietnam alone contributed 2,499 scholarships, including 650 for education (17 PhD, 33 Masters’). Scholarships may be advertised in the press and by other means. They may entitle an award winner to a free place on a program of study, travel costs and a small stipend that goes some way towards covering cost of living. Conditions are often attached including prior academic qualifications and a defined level of English language competence. Applicants are required to submit an application with supporting evidence for their proposed study. MoE often sponsors applicants for all scholarships on offer; however, it is claimed that some countries, such as Australia allocate a proportion after examination.

2.1.2.13 Upgrading

Staff in the education service, including teachers, is civil servants (CS). CS are paid on five salary scales that reflect their basic academic qualifications. Acquiring additional academic qualifications, equivalent to completing secondary education, diploma or degree may make a CS eligible to move to a higher salary scale. Government supports upgrading by releasing selected staff on full pay to study formally at 17 provincial upgrading centers or other post-school institutions in Lao PDR or overseas. DPC (2008) figures suggest that 2,017 MoE staff with year 8 and year 11 schooling was included in the national quota for upgrading in 2008, along with 2,751 with higher diploma and bachelor degrees. It is understood that staff may apply for upgrading, but the criteria on which it is granted and the selection process followed is opaque. It appears that decision-makers sponsor ‘suitable’ staff to become qualified for promotion or redeployment in another role within education or another public service sector.

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2.1.2.14 Second chance education

On the basis of self-reports (EFA 2008), 72.7% of the population aged 15+ in Lao PDR is literate. The Department of Non-Formal Education (DNFE) provides free equivalency courses in primary and secondary education at centers across Lao PDR to persons over 15 years who have missed out on primary and secondary education. In 2009 MoE funded a three month residential course in adult literacy for members of Village Education

Development Committees (VEDC) at DEB ethnic boarding schools.

2.1.2.15 Conclusion

This section has discussed recruitment and selection for different stages of school and post-school education. No evidence was found in this consultancy of recruitment of students for school education, except in relation to private schools. Considerable recruitment literature was found in relation to post-school higher education, though none for teacher training specifically except at NUOL. Access to primary and secondary school education is based on ability to pay fees; progression within both stages is generally based on ability to continue to pay fees and pass tests, though special financial assistance is given to gifted and able but deprived ethnic students. Access to a free place in post-school education is a right and privilege for those with appropriate ‘connections’ in society; up to half of the total post-school student body in all public institutions is ‘sponsored’ by their province to study free with a scholarship for a qualification on condition that they will put their acquired skills to use in their home province. The remainder has a free place on the strength of passing an entrance examination. Those who apply to private colleges must first pass entrance examinations and then pay fees, though some small financial support is offered to poor but able students who are making good progress. Access to upgrading opportunities appears to be largely on a sponsorship basis though second chance education is free but depends upon individual initiative.

2.2 ACCESS TO EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN THE EDUCATION SERVICE

The discussion here relates principally to access to first employment as a teacher and to promotion within schools. However, access to other posts within the education service, including administrative posts in MoE is briefly discussed.

2.2.1 Access to a civil service teaching position

Information provided indicates that, though specific vacancies are advertised recruitment by PES/DEB at TEI for CS teaching posts is exceptional; some PES actively recruit BA

graduate for secondary school teaching positions. Absence of recruitment may reflect the ‘quota’ system which is a kind of provincial ‘pre-signing’ of teachers prior to training as a guarantee of supply, though many bonded students – how many is not known - in fact do not apply for teaching positions. Teachers who have completed training for pre-primary, lower and upper secondary are likely to be able to find CS teaching positions without much difficulty though not necessarily in the school of their first choice because both systems are expanding and new posts being created. It is understood that applicants approach school directors and then PES, making application and paying relevant fees. Primary trained teachers may find a CS job with little difficulty if they are willing to work in areas where there are vacancies, especially remote and ethnic community schools. DEB, which appoints teachers to primary and pre-primary schools in their districts, would be likely to draw such

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vacancies to the attention of job applicants. A qualified trained teacher willing to teach in such a school would likely be appointed on application, assuming s/he was acceptable to the community. However physical access challenges, together with social and linguistic factors such as the local culture and language are such deterrents that there are few applicants for such posts from Lao-Tai teachers who are the dominant social and linguistic group. As a result DEB often staffs these schools with untrained and unqualified persons, or on a ‘community service’ principle whereby school leavers with ethnic language skills awaiting entry to higher education are assigned the task for a short period of time.

The process whereby a teacher is the sole applicant for a primary CS teaching post involves contacting DEB/school director, submitting an application with supporting documents at a total cost of about 500,000 kip and undergoing a formal or informal interview with VEDC members if a VEDC exists. In well-settled districts, however the new trainee finds that few CS jobs are available and that many trained teachers who have been teaching locally as unpaid volunteers or as poorly paid ‘contract’ teachers for two to three years are applicants. There are consequently substantially more applicants than places. In two provinces visited during the consultancy PES required applicants to take a 50-item multiple-choice test on local policy and pedagogy and ranked them on results. Officials interviewed admitted that volunteers and contract teachers usually scored better than newly trained teachers and were generally appointed because they were known to PA and a post had been more or less promised to them. Some newly trained teachers are successful. Many, however, are unsuccessful or, knowing that their chances of securing a post are slim, and that they may thus spend 500,000 kip to no purpose, decide not to apply. The number in each category is unknown. In one province visited it was stated that there were no contract teachers but 303 volunteer teachers. The province was allocated 256 quota posts in October 2008, but

officials estimated that they needed 150 more posts to cover replacements and even more to meet expanding roles. The province had 900 applications for these 256 quota teaching positions from a variety of applicants including volunteers and trained teachers and selected on the basis of high examination performance in a locally devised test, with preference apparently given to high test performing volunteers who had taught successfully for two to three years.

Unsuccessful applicants and non-applicants learn from this experience that if they wish to have a chance of securing a CS teaching position in their preferred area they must wait their turn in the queue, offering their services to a specific school as a volunteer or accepting contract teacher status, assuming this is available. Since the system for identifying vacant CS teaching posts operated by government results in most schools having fewer CS teaching positions than they need, and since PES and DEB distribution policies sometimes favor some schools more than others, many schools are understaffed. Volunteers are consequently welcomed. To obtain such a post a teacher must make application to the school director. DEB Pedagogical Advisors (PA) visit volunteers from time to time to observe them teaching. However voluntary teaching is not considered for ‘probationary’ teaching purposes.

2.2.2 Promotion within primary teaching

The main promoted posts are head teacher of an incomplete school, school director of a complete school and cluster school director of a group of typically five or six schools in close

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proximity. Promotion is on the basis of being suitably qualified and trained, possibly through ‘upgrading’, having relevant successful experience of teaching as judged by one’s school director and by the DEB PA. Party affiliation is also a factor in some cases.

2.2.3 Promotion as a Pedagogical Adviser (PA)

It is understood that most PA’s are former teachers. It is presumed that selection is based on educational qualifications and successful teaching experience. However, the selection process was not investigated.

2.2.4 Recruitment and selection for TEI teacher training posts

TTEST (2006) reported that National Teacher Education Plan proposed the first criteria for selecting TEI staff viz. general education and significant teaching experience. The average age of the 520 teacher educators in post in 2004-5 was 36; the modal age was 26. On average TEI had worked for 12 years, 10 in TEI. Few consequently had extensive teaching experience. No information was collected on current recruitment and selection processes.

2.2.5 Recruitment, selection and transfer of staff for MoE management posts

PACSA officials informed that recruitment to CS was not necessary because of its high status. MoE’s DOF, however informed that its advertisements attracted applications only from school teachers of mathematics with ‘middle level’ i.e. secondary school academic qualifications rather than BAs. Job descriptions in MoE date from 2001 and consequently are likely to be of limited value as selection criteria for assessors in the context of restructuring. CDF (2009) noted the often low level of academic qualifications of PES/DEB staff. It is understood that selection is based on examination and interview performance. Provinces identify senior PES and DEB staff and DoP nominates them to the Minister of Education for approval. Some PES and DEB staff is ex-teachers or former PA. Able staff, such as school directors may be transferred to other agencies by PES staff without seeking approval from MoE. Staff may also apply to transfer between provinces and this is possible if agencies involved in both provinces agree. DoP must be informed and also agree.

2.2.6 Appointment to senior positions within MoE

Experience with SREAC and discussions with Directors General (DG) in several departments indicate that senior positions in MoE at DG and above are filled on the basis of internal promotion or transfer of persons with high academic qualifications, some acquired through international training. DG SREAC, for example was transferred from NUOL’s Education Management and Training Center. As a kind of succession planning, persons eligible for more senior positions are required to participate in extended advanced training conducted off-the-job by the Party.

2.2.7 Conclusion

Recruitment for teaching – or to CS - rarely occurs in Lao PDR. Appointment to teaching posts within the education service is generally on the basis of educational qualifications and professional training. The exception is remote and ethnic schools where, because of lack of applicants, untrained staff may be appointed. Since supply and demand for pre-school and secondary teachers is reasonably balanced ‘selection’ is rarely necessary. An oversupply of applicants for primary teaching positions in some areas creates a situation where only a few applicants can be selected. Some applicants are recent trainees who have substantial

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teaching experience in district schools as volunteers or as contract teachers and who are known to DEB staff that makes selection decisions; others are fresh from initial training and unknown as teachers. A main public criterion for selection is performance on a short

knowledge test that is likely to favor those already assisting schools. However, the main factor in the selection decision appears to be assessors’ personal knowledge of applicants. In some cases a decision on whom to appoint appears to be more or less already taken and test performance may merely serve to justify it.

Selection for teacher training and lower level management positions was not specifically investigated but appears to be based on different combinations of academic record,

examination performance and interview rather than professional experience. The most senior positions appear to be filled on the basis of track record, participation in significant training opportunities especially internationally, sponsorship by officials making the selection decision and acceptability to the Party.

2.3 QUALITY AND RELEVANCE

Quality of education is influenced by physical conditions of school buildings including classrooms, offices, dormitories, yard, boundary walls, playing fields and other physical features, and facilities such as water, sanitation, electricity, transport, and internet access. Teaching conditions in classrooms that affect quality include PTR, textbooks and other teaching-learning resource materials and equipment. From an HR perspective demonstrated competence of staff as teachers, managers and administrators is a key factor in quality. In the school context relevance relates to appropriateness of the taught curriculum for the range of children, and the validity of measures of pupil attainment on the learned curriculum. In management contexts relevance relates to ensuring alignment between system goals and system delivery, so that needed resources are provided to support teachers at the time, place and to the level required to enable them to deliver the curriculum in an appropriate way. A further aspect is gathering intelligence on system functioning through evaluation to inform decisions about needed staff development and future resource allocation.

2.3.1 Physical facilities

Primary schools are built by local communities and their condition often reflects community resources and child population. Projects also fund schools. Physical conditions vary but many schools lack basic facilities; WB (2007) reported that less than 15% of schools have electricity; dormitories in one school visited offered students little personal space.

2.3.2 Teaching conditions

Primary classrooms generally have basic facilities, but especially in poor districts textbooks and other learning resources are in short supply with students often having to share. Nearly all schools are understaffed because of decisions made centrally by PACSA on the number of CS teaching positions that can be filled and DEB deployment policy. There are notional Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTR) for each level of schooling: pre-primary 1: 20, primary 1:35, lower secondary 1:30, but in remote areas incomplete school class size may be very small while in more populous locations class size can be 50+.

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2.3.3 Teachers

Annual statistical information is collected by ESITC on student and teacher numbers. In 2004-5 the total number of teachers employed in education at all levels from pre-school to university in Lao PDR was 48,113 (WB 2007). Of these 25,000 (57%) were primary teachers (61% men) with an average age of 34 years and 13 years of teaching experience. Half teach in the village where they grew up; 30% in remote areas. WB (2007) reported that around 14% of primary teachers have completed only five years of primary education and are untrained. Significant numbers have five years of schooling and three or four years of training, though the majority now has 8 + 3 qualification.

Table 2 shows that in 2005-6 a total of 27,850 primary teachers were employed in Lao PDR, including 6,475 in the 47 poorest districts. Nationally 11% of these teachers were untrained, compared with 19% untrained serving in the poorest districts. One in four serving teachers was a year 11 graduate and most had received one year of training.

Table 2: Number of primary teachers in Lao PDR in 2005-6 by district and training category Teacher category Untrained (%) < 8+3 (%) 8+3 (%) 11+1 (%) >11+1 (%) All (%) National 3,155 (11) 9,695 (35) 7,750 (28) 6,867 (25) 383 (1) 27,850 (100) 47 Poorest districts 1,256 (19) 2,437 (38) 1,237 (19) 1,515 (23) 30 (0) 6,475 (100) Other districts 1,899 (9) 7,258 (34) 6,513 (30) 5,352 (25) 353 (2) 21,375 (100) Source: Ministry of Education annual school census 2005-6. Cited in Noonan and

Xaiyasensook (2007): Alternative Models of Teacher Training for Remote Areas, SIDA p. 4; calculations by authors

NB: Data provided do not indicate whether these primary teachers are all civil servants or include contract and/or volunteer teachers.

New teachers undergo a year of probation. A grade 5 teacher teaches on average for 36 hours per week and spends a further seven hours on preparation and correction. There are also typically four parents’ meetings per year. Poorly qualified teachers are nominated for upgrading through projects or MoE. In one district visited 162 teachers (96 women) were employed including one untrained teacher, a number with 5+3 or 5+4 qualifications and 21 volunteers of whom nine served in pre-school and primary and 12 in lower secondary where the major shortage existed.

2.3.4 Teaching quality

The school year is 165 days and typical school hours are 08.00-12.00 and 13.00-16.00. Teachers turn up for school punctually and regularly. Schools purport to be ‘child friendly’ and student-centered, but studies (TTEST 2004c; WB, 2007) suggest that teachers generally instruct reflecting their previous school and TEI experience. The school curriculum is set nationally and is in process of revision. Besides core subjects some schools take advantage of freedom to provide 20-25% of locally oriented curriculum.

Education Sector Development Framework Sector Study. Human Resource Management