Mixed Approach

MIXED

MIXED

MIXED METHOD

MIXED METHOD

METHOD

METHOD

APPROACH

APPROACH

APPROACH

APPROACH

QU

QU

ALITATIVE APPROACH

ALITATIVE APPROACH

QU

QU

ALITATIVE APPROACH

ALITATIVE APPROACH

R 

R efers to research that:efers to research that:

focus on phenomena that occur in

focus on phenomena that occur in natural settings ± real worldnatural settings ± real world

involve studying those phenomena in all their complexities (Leedy and Ormrod, involve studying those phenomena in all their complexities (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010).

2010). Qua

Qualitlitatiative ve resresearearchchers ers normnormallally y try try toto porportratray y ississues ues in in thetheir ir mumultiltifacfaceteetedd forms.

forms. O

Oftften en foformrmululatate e gegeneneraral l rereseseararch ch proproblblemems s or or asask k gegeneneraral l ququesestitionons s at at ththee  beginning and so, cannot know the right methods to use, but with time, as they  beginning and so, cannot know the right methods to use, but with time, as they come to learn more and more about the phenomenon, they tend to ask specific come to learn more and more about the phenomenon, they tend to ask specific que

questistionsons, , formformulaulate te spespecifcific ic hyhypotpotheheses ses and and knknow ow betbetter ter spespecifcific ic memethodthods s toto apply.

apply. Qu

Qualialitattativive e resresearearchchers ers mumust st be be wewell ll tratrainined ed in in obseobservarvatiotion n and and intinterverviewiewinging strategies, w

strategies, with a ith a firm grasp of previous firm grasp of previous researchresearch

With qualitative research, there is no quick and easy answers like µyes¶, µno¶ With qualitative research, there is no quick and easy answers like µyes¶, µno¶ answers.

What is Qualitative Research? What is Qualitative Research? Often uses multiple form

Often uses multiple forms of datas of data Takes a great deal of time

Takes a great deal of time

The researcher should record

The researcher should record any potentially any potentially useful data thoroughlyuseful data thoroughly,, accurately and systematically

accurately and systematically, using , using field notes, audiotapes, sfield notes, audiotapes, sketches,ketches, photographs, etc.

photographs, etc.

Often researchers use non-random purposive samples ± for which key Often researchers use non-random purposive samples ± for which key informants give most of the information being sought.

informants give most of the information being sought. Normally small non-random samples are used

Normally small non-random samples are used

The researcher/interviewer is an integral part of the

The researcher/interviewer is an integral part of the investigationinvestigation It is subjective but the

It is subjective but the truthtruth is being soughtis being sought It is holistic and contextual

It is holistic and contextual

Normally in-depth interviewing and observation are used to collect data Normally in-depth interviewing and observation are used to collect data Uses inductive rather than deductive process to der

Uses inductive rather than deductive process to derive themes or patternsive themes or patterns Thematic categorization of data, narrative description and c

Thematic categorization of data, narrative description and content analysisontent analysis including coding are used in data analysis and reporting the study results including coding are used in data analysis and reporting the study results Qualitative researchers aim to gather an

Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of in-depth understanding of humanhuman

behaviour 

behaviour and the reasonsand the reasons for such behaviour.for such behaviour.

Qualitative research aim to describe systematically

Qualitative research aim to describe systematically observaobservations of tions of socialsocial behaviour 

behaviour with no preconceived hypotheses to be tested (Rubin & Babbie,with no preconceived hypotheses to be tested (Rubin & Babbie, 1993).

Hy

Hypotpotheheseses s emeemergrge e frfrom om ththe e obsobserervavatiotion n and and ininterterprpretetatation ion of of huhumanman be

behahaviviouourr, , leleadadining g to to fufurtrtheher r obobseservrvatatioions ns anand d ththe e gegeneneraratition on of of neneww hypotheses for exploration.

hypotheses for exploration. T

The he inintetervrvieiewewer r is is an an inintetegrgral al papart rt of of ththe e ininveveststigigatatioion n ± ± mamakiking ng ththee research subjective.

research subjective.

Qualitative research uses detailed descriptions from the perspective of the research Qualitative research uses detailed descriptions from the perspective of the research  participants themse

 participants themselves as a lves as a means of examining specific issues and problems under means of examining specific issues and problems under  study.

study.

Qualitative approaches have the advantages of flexibility, in-depth analysis, Qualitative approaches have the advantages of flexibility, in-depth analysis, an

and d ththe e popotetentntiaial l to to obobseservrve e a a vavaririetety y of of asaspepectcts s of of a a sosocicial al sisitutuatatioionn (Babbie, 1986).

(Babbie, 1986).

By developing and using questions on the spot in (a face-to-face interview), By developing and using questions on the spot in (a face-to-face interview), a qualitative researcher can gain a more in-depth understanding of the a qualitative researcher can gain a more in-depth understanding of the respondent's beliefs, attitudes, or situation.

respondent's beliefs, attitudes, or situation.

During the interview, observational data can be of particular value when a During the interview, observational data can be of particular value when a respondent's body language runs counter to the verbal response given to an respondent's body language runs counter to the verbal response given to an interview question.

G

G_{ilgun (1990) suggested these steps of doing a qualitative research:ilgun (1990) suggested these steps of doing a qualitative research:}

1.

1. Identification of Identification of the athe area under rea under investigationinvestigation 2.

2. Literature review - Literature review - Drawing on the theoretDrawing on the theoretical and research literature, ical and research literature, suchsuch questions may be formulated and organized in advance to address a specific questions may be formulated and organized in advance to address a specific research topic.

research topic. 3.

3. Selection of Selection of variables or variables or parameters of parameters of studystudy 4.

4. ColleCollection oction of f datadata 5.

5. Comparison of patterns Comparison of patterns of first of first case with those case with those of second caseof second case 6.

6. Development of Development of working hypotheworking hypothesis as common pattsis as common patterns emerge acrosserns emerge across interviews

interviews 7.

7. Formulation of Formulation of additional questions and modification additional questions and modification of questions, of questions, basedbased on analysis

on analysis 8.

8. Continuation Continuation of of theoretical theoretical samplingsampling 9.

9. Review of relevant lReview of relevant literature when patterns appear iterature when patterns appear to stabilizto stabilizee 10.Linking of relevant literature to the empirically

10.Linking of relevant literature to the empirically grounded hypothesesgrounded hypotheses 1

11.T1.Testing of theoretical esting of theoretical formulations derived formulations derived from preceding from preceding stepstep 12.Revision of theoretical formulations as needed

12.Revision of theoretical formulations as needed to fit empirical patterns into fit empirical patterns in each subsequent step.

y

y PProduces more in-depth, comprehensive roduces more in-depth, comprehensive informatinformation.ion. y

y UUssees s susubbjejeccttiivve e iinfnfoorrmmaattiion on aannd d ppaarrttiicciippaanntt

observation to describe the context, or

observation to describe the context, or natural setting,natural setting, of the variables under consideration, as well as the of the variables under consideration, as well as the interactions of the different variables in the

interactions of the different variables in the context.context.

y

y It seeks a wide and deep understanding of the entireIt seeks a wide and deep understanding of the entire

situation. situation.

D

Disadvantages of qualitative researchisadvantages of qualitative research

y

y TThe very subjectivity of the inquiry leads to difficulties in establishing thehe very subjectivity of the inquiry leads to difficulties in establishing the

reliability and validity of the app

reliability and validity of the approaches and information.roaches and information.

y

y It is very difficult to prevent or detect rIt is very difficult to prevent or detect researcher induced bias.esearcher induced bias. y

y ItIts s scscope ope is is lilimmitited ed dudue e to to ththe e inin-d-depepthth, , comcomprprehehenensisive ve dadata ta gagaththereriningg

a

a roroacachehes s re uirre uireded..

The process ends when the researcher reaches ³

The process ends when the researcher reaches ³theoretical saturationtheoretical saturation,´,´ the point at which no new data are emerging (see also

the point at which no new data are emerging (see also GG_{laser & Strauss,laser & Strauss,}

1967). Through this procedure emerging theories are grounded in data and 1967). Through this procedure emerging theories are grounded in data and are linked to other theories and research

are linked to other theories and research ((GG_{ilgun, 1992).ilgun, 1992).}

Advantages of qualitative research Advantages of qualitative research

M

Methods of ethods of DData Collectionata Collection

M

M_{etethohods ds ininclcludude e inintetervrvieiews ws anand d fofocucus s grgrououp p didiscscusussisionons, s, obobseservrvatatioionn}

(Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation), field notes, various (Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation), field notes, various texts, pictures, and other materials.

texts, pictures, and other materials. Structured interviews

Structured interviews

Limited time and financial resources may lead some qualitative researchers Limited time and financial resources may lead some qualitative researchers to pursue other data collection techniques, such as a structured interview to pursue other data collection techniques, such as a structured interview schedule with open-ended questions.

schedule with open-ended questions. Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research DDesigns (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005)esigns (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005) Case study Case study Ethnography Ethnography Phenomenological study Phenomenological study GG_{rounded theory studyrounded theory study}

Content analysis Content analysis

We dig deep to get a

We dig deep to get a complete understandingcomplete understanding of the phenomenon.of the phenomenon. We collect

We collect different forms of datadifferent forms of data and examine them from various anglesand examine them from various angles to

to coconsnstrtrucuct t a a ririch ch anand d memeananiningfgful ul pipictcturure e of of a a cocompmplelex, x, mumultltififacaceteteded situation - triangulation.

situation - triangulation.

Note: There are several different research

Note: There are several different research designs to use but designs to use but they:they:  all focus on a phenomenon in

 all focus on a phenomenon in itsits natural settingnatural setting in the real world.in the real world. involve studying the phenomenon in

involve studying the phenomenon in all its complexityall its complexity in a multifacetedin a multifaceted and

and all its dimensionsall its dimensions..

The researcher must keep his/her perceptions, impressions and biases to The researcher must keep his/her perceptions, impressions and biases to him/herself.

him/herself. What matters is to get the truth.What matters is to get the truth.

In the academic social sciences the most

In the academic social sciences the most frequently used qualitativefrequently used qualitative research approaches include the following:

research approaches include the following: Ethnographic

Ethnographic ResearchResearch, used for investigating cultures by collecting and, used for investigating cultures by collecting and describing data that is intended to

describing data that is intended to help in the help in the development of a theorydevelopment of a theory.. Grounded Theory

Grounded Theory,, an inductive type of research, based or ³grounded´ inan inductive type of research, based or ³grounded´ in the observations or data from which it was developed; it uses a

the observations or data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of variety of  data sources

data sources, including quantitative data, review , including quantitative data, review of records, interviews,of records, interviews, observation and surveys.

observation and surveys. Phenomenolog

Phenomenological ical ResearchResearch,, describes the ³subjective reality´ of andescribes the ³subjective reality´ of an event,

event, as perceived by the as perceived by the study populationstudy population; it is the study of a; it is the study of a phenomenon.

D

Data analysisata analysis

Interview questions and responses are typically tape-recorded and then Interview questions and responses are typically tape-recorded and then transcribed verbatim before analysis is begun.

transcribed verbatim before analysis is begun.

QuQualalititatative ive reresesearcarchehers rs ofoften ten cacatetegogoririze ze datdata a intinto o papattetternrns s as as ththee primary basis for organizing and reporting results.

primary basis for organizing and reporting results.

Narrative descriptionsNarrative descriptions of data collected through interviews, observations,of data collected through interviews, observations, and case records are also used in

and case records are also used in qualitative analysis.qualitative analysis.

Content analysisContent analysis is often used in qualitative and quantitative researchis often used in qualitative and quantitative research methods.

W

W_{hen to use qualitative approach?hen to use qualitative approach?}

P

Purposes:urposes:

Description of situations, settings, processes, relationships or people Description of situations, settings, processes, relationships or people Interpretation ± enables researchers:

Interpretation ± enables researchers:

o

oTTo gain new insights about o gain new insights about a particular phenomena particular phenomenonon o

oDevelop new concepts or theoretical perspectives about a Develop new concepts or theoretical perspectives about a phenomephenomenon, onon, or r  o

oDiscover the problems that occur within the Discover the problems that occur within the phenomenphenomenonon

V

Vererifificicatatioion n ± ± to to tetest st ththe e vavalilididity ty of of cecertrtaiain n asassusummptptionions, s, clclaiaimms, s, ththeoeoriries es or or  generalizat

generalizations ions withiwithin n real-world.real-world.

EvEvalaluuatatioion n ± ± prprovovidides es mmeeanans s tthhrorougugh h wwhhicich h a a rereseseararchcheer r cacan n asassesesss s ththee effectiveness of a policy, programme, practice or innovation

effectiveness of a policy, programme, practice or innovation  Note: Qualitative research cannot

 Note: Qualitative research cannot address cause-and-effecaddress cause-and-effect relationships or t relationships or questionsquestions like, µwhy did such and such happen?¶ You need quantitative research, especially like, µwhy did such and such happen?¶ You need quantitative research, especially experiments.

Q

Q

ualitative Research Designs

ualitative Research Designs

Q

Q

ualitative Research Designs

ualitative Research Designs

1

1_{.. AA cacase se ststududyy}

- A particular individual programme or event is studied in depth for a specified - A particular individual programme or event is studied in depth for a specified  period of time

 period of time

e.g., a medical researcher ± studying the nature and treatment of a rare illness for a e.g., a medical researcher ± studying the nature and treatment of a rare illness for a  particular patien

 particular patient or strategies a teacher uses t or strategies a teacher uses to teach his/her school childrento teach his/her school children - can be

- can be generalized to similar situations or generalized to similar situations or environmenvironmentsents

- sometimes researchers study 2 or more cases for comparison, build a theory or  - sometimes researchers study 2 or more cases for comparison, build a theory or  generalizations

generalizations

- may be suitable for learning more about a little known or poorly understood - may be suitable for learning more about a little known or poorly understood situations or investiga

situations or investigating how ting how an individual or programme changes over timean individual or programme changes over time -

- cacase se ststududieies s cacan n be be ususefeful ul to to gegenenerarate te or or prprovovidide e prprelelimimininarary y susupppporort t fofor r  hypotheses

hypotheses  Note:

M

M_ethodethod

Researcher collects extensiv

Researcher collects extensive e data on data on individual(s), programmindividual(s), programme(s) or e(s) or event(s).event(s).

Collects also details about the context surrounding the cases including information Collects also details about the context surrounding the cases including information about physical environment and any

about physical environment and any historical, economic and social factors that havehistorical, economic and social factors that have a bearing on the situation

a bearing on the situation

TThis helps other researchers to judge whether the findings can be generalized tohis helps other researchers to judge whether the findings can be generalized to other similar situations

other similar situations 2. Ethnography

2. Ethnography

TThe researcher looks at anhe researcher looks at an entire group ± more specificallyentire group ± more specifically, a , a group that shares agroup that shares a comm

common on culture ± depth.culture ± depth.

Studies it in its natural setting for a lengthy time period, often several months or  Studies it in its natural setting for a lengthy time period, often several months or  years

years

TThe focus of the investigationhe focus of the investigation is on the everyday behaviours of the people in theis on the everyday behaviours of the people in the group

group (interactions, language and rituals with intent of identifying cultural norms,(interactions, language and rituals with intent of identifying cultural norms,  belief, social structures, and other

 belief, social structures, and other cultural patterns.cultural patterns. Useful for gaining an

Useful for gaining an understanding of the complexities of a particular intactunderstanding of the complexities of a particular intact sociocultural group

sociocultural group..

Allows considerable flexibility in the choice of method to obtain the necessary Allows considerable flexibility in the choice of method to obtain the necessary informat

M

M_ethodethod

Site-based fieldwork  Site-based fieldwork 

PProlonged engagement in the group¶s natural settingrolonged engagement in the group¶s natural setting TThe researcher observe and record processeshe researcher observe and record processes

First step is to gain access to the site First step is to gain access to the site

TThe research mushe research must t often go thru a often go thru a gatekeepergatekeeper, e.g., tribal chief, a principal, e.g., tribal chief, a principal

After gaining entry into the site, the researcher must establish rapport with and gain After gaining entry into the site, the researcher must establish rapport with and gain trust of the people being studied

trust of the people being studied Researcher mu

Researcher must be open about why st be open about why he/she is there.he/she is there. TThis is ethical.his is ethical. Informed consent is important

Informed consent is important

A big net approach, intermingling with everyone and getting overall sense of the A big net approach, intermingling with everyone and getting overall sense of the social and cultural context

social and cultural context

It requires considerable patience and tolerance It requires considerable patience and tolerance

Gradually, the researcher identifies key informants who can provide the necessary Gradually, the researcher identifies key informants who can provide the necessary information and insights relevant to the research question and can facilitate contacts information and insights relevant to the research question and can facilitate contacts with other helpful individuals

with other helpful individuals

Sometimes the researcher engages in participant observation, becoming immersed Sometimes the researcher engages in participant observation, becoming immersed in the daily life of the people.

in the daily life of the people.

TThroughout the fieldwork, the researcher must be a careful observer, interviewer hroughout the fieldwork, the researcher must be a careful observer, interviewer  and listener 

and listener 

 Lengthy conversations and significant events can be recorded using audiotapes and  Lengthy conversations and significant events can be recorded using audiotapes and videotapes.

videotapes.

TThe researcher may also collect artifacts (e.g., tools, ritualistic implements, artistiche researcher may also collect artifacts (e.g., tools, ritualistic implements, artistic creations) and records (e.g., accounting ledgers, personal journals, etc) from the creations) and records (e.g., accounting ledgers, personal journals, etc) from the group.

3

3_{. Phenomenological study. Phenomenological study}

PPhenhenomenolomenology ogy referrefers s toto a person¶s perception of the meaning of an eventa person¶s perception of the meaning of an event, , asas opposed to the event as it exists external to the person.

opposed to the event as it exists external to the person. It is a study that attempts to

It is a study that attempts to understand people¶s perceptions, perspectives, andunderstand people¶s perceptions, perspectives, and understandings of a particular situation

understandings of a particular situation..

E.g., a researcher might study the experiences of people caring for a dying relative, E.g., a researcher might study the experiences of people caring for a dying relative, living in abusive relationship, etc

living in abusive relationship, etc

Sometimes the researcher wants to gain a better 

Sometimes the researcher wants to gain a better  understanding of the experienceunderstanding of the experience re

relatlated ed to to a a phephenomnomenoenon. n. By By loolookiking ng at at mumultiltiple perspeple perspectictives ves on on the the samsamee situation, the researcher can mak

situation, the researcher can make e some generalizations.some generalizations.

M

M_ethodethod

Depends almost exclusively on

Depends almost exclusively on lengthy interviews (say,lengthy interviews (say, 11 _{to 2 hours) with ato 2 hours) with a}

carefully selected sample of participants

carefully selected sample of participants. Say, 5 to 25 individuals, all of whom. Say, 5 to 25 individuals, all of whom have had direct experience with the phenomenon being studied (

have had direct experience with the phenomenon being studied (CreswellCreswell, 1, 1998).998). Often a very

Often a very unstructured interviewunstructured interviewss

TThe researcher listens closely as he researcher listens closely as participants describe their everyday experiencesparticipants describe their everyday experiences A

A typical interview looks more like informal conversationtypical interview looks more like informal conversation, with the participant, with the participant doing most of the talking and

G

G_{rounded theory studyrounded theory study}

Least likely to begin

Least likely to begin from a particular theoretical framework.from a particular theoretical framework. Main purpose is to

Main purpose is to begin with the data and use them to develop a theorybegin with the data and use them to develop a theory

TThhe e ssttuudy dy uussees s aa prpresescrcribibed ed seset t of of prprococededurures es fofor r ananalalysysining g dadata ta anandd constructing a

constructing a theoretical modeltheoretical model from themfrom them

TTypypicaicallylly, , the the stustudydy fofocucusses es on on a a prprococesesss (in(inclucludinding g peopeopleple¶¶s s actactionions s andand interactions) related to a particular topic, with the ultimate goal of developing a interactions) related to a particular topic, with the ultimate goal of developing a theory about that process (Creswel

theory about that process (Creswell, 2008l, 2008).). E.g., to study children¶

E.g., to study children¶s eating habits, college students eating habits, college students¶s¶ thoughts and feelings duringthoughts and feelings during classroom discussions, and workers¶ stress levels in public

M

M_ethodethod

Data collection is

Data collection is field-basedfield-based, flexible, and likely to change over the course of the, flexible, and likely to change over the course of the study.

study.

InIntetervrvieiews ws tytypipicacalllly y plplay ay a a mmajoajor r rrololee in in datdata a colcolleclectition, on, but but obsobservervatiationsons,, documents, historical records, videotapes, and anything else of po

documents, historical records, videotapes, and anything else of potential relevantential relevance toce to the research question may also be used.

the research question may also be used.

Like in the case of the other designs, data analysis begins almost immediately ± the Like in the case of the other designs, data analysis begins almost immediately ± the resear

researcher develops cher develops categoriescategories to classify the data.to classify the data. Su

Subsebsequequent nt datdata a colcolleclectiotion n is is aimaimed ed at at satsaturauratinting g ththe e catcategegoriories es ± ± in in essessencence,e, learning as much about them as possible ±

learning as much about them as possible ± and at finding any disconfirming evidenceand at finding any disconfirming evidence that may suggest revisions in the categories identified or interrelationships among that may suggest revisions in the categories identified or interrelationships among them.

them.

TThe process of moving back and forth between data collection and data analysis,he process of moving back and forth between data collection and data analysis, with data analysis driving later data collection, is sometimes called the

with data analysis driving later data collection, is sometimes called the constantconstant comparative method.

comparative method.

TThe theory that ultimately evolves is one that includes numerous concepts andhe theory that ultimately evolves is one that includes numerous concepts and interrelationsh

CC_{ontent analysisontent analysis}

A

A detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular materialdetailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular material for the purpose of 

for the purpose of identifying patterns, themesidentifying patterns, themes or biases.or biases.

TTypicallyypically performed on forms of communicationperformed on forms of communication, including books, newspaper,, including books, newspaper, films

films, television, art, , television, art, music, videotapes, transcripts of conversations, etc.music, videotapes, transcripts of conversations, etc.

TThe he rereseseararchcher er dedefifinenes s a a spspececifific ic rereseseararch ch prproboblelem m or or ququesestition on at at ththe e veveryry  beginning.

 beginning. E.g. Do

E.g. Do contemporary television commercials reflect traditional gender stereotypes?contemporary television commercials reflect traditional gender stereotypes?

M

M_ethodethod

Identify the specific body of material to be

Identify the specific body of material to be studiedstudied Define the characteristics or qualities to

Define the characteristics or qualities to be examined in be examined in precise concrete termsprecise concrete terms Etc

When to choose a qualitative method When to choose a qualitative method

Qualitative research serves the following purposes: Qualitative research serves the following purposes:

DDescriptive ± escriptive ± rereveveal al nanaturture e of of cecertrtaiain n sisituatuatiotionsns, , setsettitingngs, s, prproceocessesses,s, relationships, system or people.

relationships, system or people.

InterpretationInterpretation ± to gain new insights about a phenomenon, develop new± to gain new insights about a phenomenon, develop new concepts and theoretical perspectives, etc and discover the problem that concepts and theoretical perspectives, etc and discover the problem that exists within the phenomenon.

exists within the phenomenon.

VerificationVerification ± ± it it alalllowows s ththe e rereseseararchcher er tto o tetest st tthe he vvalalididitity y of of cecertrtaiainn assumptions, claims, theories or generalizations within the real world

assumptions, claims, theories or generalizations within the real world

EvaluationEvaluation ± ± a a memeaanns s tthhrorouuggh h wwhihich ch a a rereseseaarrcchheer r cacan n aasssseesss s tthhee effectiveness of a particular policy, programme, practice or innovation. For  effectiveness of a particular policy, programme, practice or innovation. For  e.g., understanding how and why programme

e.g., understanding how and why programme outcomesoutcomes are not achieved.are not achieved.

P

Progrogramramme me evaevalualuatiotion n stustudiedies s invinvolvolving ing ththee ququalalititatativive e apapprproaoach ch focfocus us onon participants' perceptions and their experiences in the programme

participants' perceptions and their experiences in the programme (Bogdan &(Bogdan &

T

Taylor, 1990;aylor, 1990; PPatton, 1990; Rubin & Babbie, 1993).atton, 1990; Rubin & Babbie, 1993).

Tries to paint a picture of a given situation by addressing questions: who, Tries to paint a picture of a given situation by addressing questions: who, what, when, where and

what, when, where and howhow. For . For e.g., an economic or e.g., an economic or employemployment situationment situation in SA

Note: Note:

Qualitative studies

Qualitative studies normally take long time periodsnormally take long time periods, e.g. months and , e.g. months and yearsyears They

They do not normally give quick and easy answersdo not normally give quick and easy answers to research questionsto research questions Qualitative studies are

Qualitative studies are subjectivesubjective and it is difficult for other researchers toand it is difficult for other researchers to repea

repeat the studies, let alone t the studies, let alone to evaluate the studies in terms to evaluate the studies in terms of the researcheof the researcher r  biases.

biases.

Unlike for a quantitative study, in the case of a qualitative research, the Unlike for a quantitative study, in the case of a qualitative research, the researcher is the data collection instrument

researcher is the data collection instrument

Purposive samplingPurposive sampling based on previous research is normally usedbased on previous research is normally used Qu

Qualialitattative ive appapproacroach h isis weaweak k at at ininvesvestitigagatiting ng rerelalatitiononshshipips s bebetwetweenen phenomena

phenomena andand predictingpredicting phenomenaphenomena

GeGeneneraralilizazatitionons s tetend nd to to be be imimpopossssibiblele bebecacaususe e ththey ey nonormrmalally ly useuse nonrandom and small sample sizes

QU

QU

ANTITATIVE APPROACH

ANTITATIVE APPROACH

QU

QU

ANTITATIVE APPROACH

ANTITATIVE APPROACH

Uses mathematics and statistical methods to study phenomena. Uses mathematics and statistical methods to study phenomena.

Often used to study relationships between variables or phenomena and to Often used to study relationships between variables or phenomena and to predict

predict

Uses statistical methods to test hypotheses Uses statistical methods to test hypotheses

It is more objective than the qualitative approach It is more objective than the qualitative approach It¶s designs are m

It¶s designs are mostly:ostly: Experiments, and

Experiments, and Research surveys. Research surveys. Quantitative studies

Quantitative studies normally use large sample sizes, randomly selectednormally use large sample sizes, randomly selected subjects and representative

subjects and representative samplessamples

RandomizationRandomization of of any any expexpererimeimentntal al grgroupoups s is is esessensentiatial, l, and and aa controlcontrol

group

group should be included, wherever possible.should be included, wherever possible. A soun

A sound d quantiquantitative design should tative design should onlyonly manipulatemanipulate one variable at a time,one variable at a time, or statistical analysis becomes difficult and open to question.

or statistical analysis becomes difficult and open to question. Ideally, the

Ideally, the researchresearch should be constructed in a manner that allows other should be constructed in a manner that allows other  researchers to repeat the experiment or study and obtain

Advantages Advantages

Using a quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results Using a quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and proving or disproving a

and proving or disproving a hypothesis.hypothesis.

The structure is standard across many scientific fields and disciplines. The structure is standard across many scientific fields and disciplines. After a statistical analysis of the data, a comprehensive answer is

After a statistical analysis of the data, a comprehensive answer is reached,reached, and the results can be legitimately discussed and published.

and the results can be legitimately discussed and published.

Quantitative studies try to filter out external factors (if properly designed), and Quantitative studies try to filter out external factors (if properly designed), and so the results gained can be seen

so the results gained can be seen as real andas real and unbiasedunbiased..

Scientific experiments are useful for testing the data gained

Scientific experiments are useful for testing the data gained by a series of by a series of  qualitative experiments, leading to a

qualitative experiments, leading to a final answerfinal answer, and a narrowing , and a narrowing down of down of  possible directions for follow up research to take.

possible directions for follow up research to take.

D

Disadvantagesisadvantages

Quantitative studies must be carefully planned to ensur

Quantitative studies must be carefully planned to ensure that there ise that there is complete randomization and correct designation of 

complete randomization and correct designation of control groupscontrol groups.. Quantitative studies usually require extensive statistical

ExperimentExperiment r

regegardarded ed as as ththe e mosmost t acaccucurarate te anand d uneunequiquivovocal cal ststanandadard rd for for  testestinting g aa

hypothesis

hypothesis..

generates good

generates good statistical datastatistical data..

manipulatesmanipulates one or more variablesone or more variables to generate analyzable data.to generate analyzable data. should be designed with later 

should be designed with later  statistical testsstatistical tests in mind, by making sure thatin mind, by making sure that the experiment has controls and a large enough sample group to provide the experiment has controls and a large enough sample group to provide statistically valid results.

statistically valid results. Every

Every trutrue e expeexperimenrimental tal desidesigngn must have a hypothesis to test as themust have a hypothesis to test as the ultimate aim of any experiment.

ultimate aim of any experiment.

The precursor to a hypothesis is a

The precursor to a hypothesis is a researresearch ch problemproblem, usually framed as a, usually framed as a question

question. It might ask what, or why something is . It might ask what, or why something is happening.happening.

ExExpeperirimementnts s arare e sosomemetitimemes s rerefeferrrred ed to to aas s µtµtrurue e scsciienencece¶¶. . ThThey ey ususee traditional mathematical and statistical means to measure and analyse data traditional mathematical and statistical means to measure and analyse data conclusively.

T

The Basicshe Basics With most

With most true true experiexperimentsments, the researcher is trying to establish a, the researcher is trying to establish a causalcausal

relationship

relationship between variables, by manipulating anbetween variables, by manipulating an indepenindependent dent variablevariable toto assess its effect upon

assess its effect upon dependent variablesdependent variables.. R

Ranandodom m grgrououps ps arare e ththe e bebest st waway y of of enensusuriring ng ththat at ththe e grgrououps ps arare e asas identical as possible.

identical as possible.

T

The basis of conducting an experimenthe basis of conducting an experiment

With an experiment, the researcher is trying to learn something new about With an experiment, the researcher is trying to learn something new about the world, an explanation of µwhy¶ something happens.

the world, an explanation of µwhy¶ something happens. This method of study is especially

This method of study is especially useful for trying to test theoreticaluseful for trying to test theoretical models

models byby using them in real world situationsusing them in real world situations.. Interpretation

Interpretation Th

The e obobseservrvatatioions ns arare e ofoftten en rerefeferrrred ed to to as as ''empiriempirical cal evidencevidencee' and the' and the logic/thinking leads to the conclusions.

2

2. . SSuurrvveey y RReesseeaarrcchh DDesignesign A

A SuSurvrveyey

Five preliminary steps that should be taken when embarking on a research project Five preliminary steps that should be taken when embarking on a research project can be identified.

can be identified. TThey are:hey are: choose a topicchoose a topic

review the literaturereview the literature

determine the research question or objectivesdetermine the research question or objectives develop a hypothesis,develop a hypothesis, andand

operationaliseoperationalise, , ththat at isis, , fifind nd ththe e susuititabable le rereseseararch ch mmetethohododolology gy anand d ususe e it it toto implement the research plan to answer the research question or to achieve implement the research plan to answer the research question or to achieve pre-determined objectives of the study.

determined objectives of the study.

TTwo additional considerations that wo additional considerations that are very are very crucial, namelycrucial, namely:: designing a representative sample ±

designing a representative sample ± randomly selected, andrandomly selected, and a questionnaire to be used to

a questionnaire to be used to collect data.collect data. By a

By a representative sample, we mean an accurate proportional representationrepresentative sample, we mean an accurate proportional representation of the population under study

of the population under study.. In this sample,

In this sample, every characteristic in the population should be well or fairlyevery characteristic in the population should be well or fairly represented

represented..

In other words, to obtain reliable results on the characteristics of interest of the In other words, to obtain reliable results on the characteristics of interest of the  population, a sample, through the process of randomization should in all relevant  population, a sample, through the process of randomization should in all relevant

respects be a true image or

The survey research design is often used because of the low cost and The survey research design is often used because of the low cost and e

eaassy y aacccceessssiibblle e iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn..

B

Befeforore e yyou ou ststarart t ththe e plplananniningng, , it it is is imimpoportrtanant t ththat at yyou ou coconsnsulult t aa statistician

statistician about the survey research design.about the survey research design.

TThhiis s hheellpps s yyoou u tto o kknnoow w tthhe e rriigghhtt sasampmple le sisizeze aannd d oobbttaaiin n aa representative sample

representative sample to make it a valid survey and prevent inaccurateto make it a valid survey and prevent inaccurate results.

results.

T

T_{ypes of surveysypes of surveys}

TThere are two basic types of surveys:here are two basic types of surveys: cross-sectional surveyscross-sectional surveys andand longitudinallongitudinal surveys

surveys..

Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather data on a population at one point in Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather data on a population at one point in time.

time.

An example of a cross ±sectional survey is using a questionnaire to collect data An example of a cross ±sectional survey is using a questionnaire to collect data on annual household expenditure in a

on annual household expenditure in a country at a given time of country at a given time of the yearthe year.. Longitudin

Longitudinal surveys al surveys gather data over a period of gather data over a period of time.time.

TThe researcher may then analyse the data to study changes in the population andhe researcher may then analyse the data to study changes in the population and attempt to explain them.

attempt to explain them.

TThe three main longitudinal surveys arehe three main longitudinal surveys are trend studiestrend studies,, cohort cohort studistudieses andand panel studies

Longitudinal StudyLongitudinal Study A longitudinal study is

A longitudinal study is observaobservational tional researresearchch performed over a periodperformed over a period of years or even decades, and allows social scientists and economists to of years or even decades, and allows social scientists and economists to study long-term effects in a hum

study long-term effects in a human population.an population. A

A cohort studycohort study is a subset of the longitudinal study because it observesis a subset of the longitudinal study because it observes the effect of a factor or variabl

the effect of a factor or variable on e on a specific group of people a specific group of people over time.over time. There are two main sub-types of cohort study, the retrospective and the There are two main sub-types of cohort study, the retrospective and the prospective cohort study.

prospective cohort study. Th

The e majmajor or didiffffererenencece: : reretrtrosospepectctivive e lolooks oks at at phphenenomeomena na ththat at hahaveve already happened, whilst the prospective

already happened, whilst the prospective type starts from the present.type starts from the present.

T

T_{rerend nd stustudiediess fofocucus s on on a a papartrticiculular ar popopupulalatitionon, , wwhihich ch is is sasammplpled ed anandd}

scrutinized repeatedly. scrutinized repeatedly.

An example of a trend study is an annual survey of the average hourly earnings An example of a trend study is an annual survey of the average hourly earnings of workers in the manufacturing industry in South Africa over a long period of  of workers in the manufacturing industry in South Africa over a long period of  time.

time. A

A trend line is trend line is then fitted to then fitted to the data.the data.

While samples are of the same population, they are typically not composed of  While samples are of the same population, they are typically not composed of  the same people.

the same people.

Several data from several studies of the same population (not necessarily done Several data from several studies of the same population (not necessarily done   by

  by ththe e sasamme e rereseseararchcherer) ) mamay y be be comcombibinened d to to ininveveststigigatate e ththe e trtrenend d of of ththee characteristic (or variable) of interest.

C

C_{ohort studiesohort studies also focus on a particular population sampled and studied morealso focus on a particular population sampled and studied more}

than once. than once.

For example, a sample of the 2010 first-year students at the SBL could be For example, a sample of the 2010 first-year students at the SBL could be questioned regarding their attitude toward the

questioned regarding their attitude toward the library stafflibrary staff..

TTwo years later, the researcher could question another sample of the same 2010wo years later, the researcher could question another sample of the same 2010 first-ye

first-year students and ar students and study any changes study any changes in attitude.in attitude.  Note: If after the

 Note: If after the two years, the two years, the 2012 first-y2012 first-year studenear students ts were studiewere studied, the d, the studystudy would be a trend study instead.

would be a trend study instead. Retrospective Cohort Study Retrospective Cohort Study

The retrospective case study is historical in nature. The researcher looks The retrospective case study is historical in nature. The researcher looks at historical data to judge the effects of the

at historical data to judge the effects of the variablevariable..

It is a lot easier than the prospective, but there is no control, and It is a lot easier than the prospective, but there is no control, and confounding variables

confounding variables can be a can be a problem, as the researchproblem, as the researcher cannot easilyer cannot easily assess the lifestyle of the subject.

assess the lifestyle of the subject.

A retrospective study is a very cheap and effective way of studying A retrospective study is a very cheap and effective way of studying health risks or the effects of exposure to pollutants and toxins.

health risks or the effects of exposure to pollutants and toxins. It gives results quickly, at the cost of 

It gives results quickly, at the cost of  validityvalidity, because it is impossible to, because it is impossible to eli

eliminminatate e all all of of ththe e popotetentntialially ly conconfofounundinding g vavariariablbles es frofrom m hihiststorioricalcal records and interviews alone.

records and interviews alone.

Note: Secondary data can be used here Note: Secondary data can be used here

Prospective Cohort Study Prospective Cohort Study In a

In a prospective cohort studyprospective cohort study, the effects of a certain variable are plotted, the effects of a certain variable are plotted over time, and the study becomes an ongoing process.

over time, and the study becomes an ongoing process. T

To o maimaintntain ain vavalidliditityy, , all all of of ththe e susubjebjectcts s mumust st be be ininititialially ly frefree e of of ththee condition tested

condition tested forfor.. Ambidir

Ambidirectional ectional Cohort StudyCohort Study The

The ambiambidirdirectectionional al cohocohort rt stustudy dy is is the the ultultimatimate e metmethodhod, , combicombiningning retrospective and prospective aspects.

retrospective and prospective aspects.

The researcher studies and analyzes the previous history of the cohorts The researcher studies and analyzes the previous history of the cohorts and then continues the research in a

and then continues the research in a prospective manner.prospective manner. Th

This is gigiveves s ththe e momost st acaccucurarate te reresusultlts, s, bubut t is is an an exextrtreememely ly didifffificucultlt undertaking, costing time and

undertaking, costing time and a great deal a great deal of moneyof money.. T

The he amambibiddirirececttioionanal l ststududy y shsharares es onone e mamajojor r drdrawawbaback ck wwitith h ththee prospe

prospective studyctive study, in , in that it is that it is impossiimpossible to ble to guarantguarantee ee that any data that any data cancan be

be fofolllolowewed d upup, , aas s papartrticicipipanants ts mamay y dedeclclinine e tto o papartrtiicicippatate e or or ddieie prematurely.

prematurely.

These studies need to look at very large samples to ensure that any These studies need to look at very large samples to ensure that any attributional losses can be absorbed

Panel studies

Panel studies allow the researcher to find out why changes in the popallow the researcher to find out why changes in the population areulation are occurring since they use the same sample of people every time.

occurring since they use the same sample of people every time. TThat samhat sample is ple is referred to as a referred to as a panel.panel.

A researcher could for example, select a sample of the SBL students and asks A researcher could for example, select a sample of the SBL students and asks them questions on their future work expectations.

them questions on their future work expectations.

Every year thereafter, the researcher would contact the same people and ask  Every year thereafter, the researcher would contact the same people and ask  them similar questions and ask them the reasons for any changes in their  them similar questions and ask them the reasons for any changes in their  expectations.

expectations.

PPanel studies suffer fromanel studies suffer from attritionattrition_{, that is, people drop out of the study for , that is, people drop out of the study for} 

various reasons, for example, moving away from the area of study, dying, various reasons, for example, moving away from the area of study, dying, deciding not to participate in the subsequent surveys, etc.

D

Data Collectionata Collection MMethodsethods Structured data Collection

Structured data Collection MMethods: (face to face, mail, telephone,ethods: (face to face, mail, telephone, computer, etc)

computer, etc) Examples

Examples Face to faceFace to face Thi

This s is is prprobaobably bly ththe e mosmost t trtradadititionional al metmethohod d of of ththe e sursurvey vey resreseaearcrchh design. It can be very accurate.

design. It can be very accurate.

It allows you to be selective about to whom you ask questions and you It allows you to be selective about to whom you ask questions and you can explain anything that they do not

can explain anything that they do not understand.understand.

In addition, you can make a judgment about who you think is wasting In addition, you can make a judgment about who you think is wasting your time or giving stupid answers.

your time or giving stupid answers.

There are a few things to be careful of with this approach; firstly, people There are a few things to be careful of with this approach; firstly, people can be reluctant to give up their tim

can be reluctant to give up their time without some form of incentive.e without some form of incentive. A

Anonothther er fafactctor or tto o bebeaar r iin n mimind nd iis s ththaat t iis s didifffificucullt t tto o asask k pepersrsononalal questions face to face without embarrassing people.

questions face to face without embarrassing people.

It is also very time consuming and difficult to obtain a representative It is also very time consuming and difficult to obtain a representative sample.

sample. F

Fininalallyly, , if if yyou ou arare e gogoining g to to be be asaskiking ng ququesestitionons s dodooror-t-to-o-dodooror, , it it isis essential to ensure that you have some official identification to prove essential to ensure that you have some official identification to prove who you are.

M Mailail

This does not necessarily mean using the postal service; this includes This does not necessarily mean using the postal service; this includes delivering

delivering it physicallyit physically..

This is a good way of targeting a certain section of people and is This is a good way of targeting a certain section of people and is ex

excecellllenent t if if yyou ou neneed ed to to asask k pepersrsononal al or or popotetentntiaially lly emembabarrrrasassisingng questions.

questions.

The problems with this method are that you cannot be sure of how many The problems with this method are that you cannot be sure of how many responses you will receive until a long time period has passed.

responses you will receive until a long time period has passed. Structuring and

Structuring and DDesigning the Questionnaireesigning the Questionnaire

The design of your questionnaire depends very much upon the type of  The design of your questionnaire depends very much upon the type of  survey and the target audience.

survey and the target audience.

If you are asking questions face to face it is easy to explain if people are If you are asking questions face to face it is easy to explain if people are unsure of a question.

unsure of a question. O

On n ththe e ototheher r hahandnd, , if if yyouour r ququesestitiononnanairire e is is gogoining g to to ininclcludude e mamanyny personal questions then mailing methods are preferable.

personal questions then mailing methods are preferable.

You must keep your questionnaire as short as possible; people will either  You must keep your questionnaire as short as possible; people will either  refuse to fill in a long questionnaire or get bored halfway through.

refuse to fill in a long questionnaire or get bored halfway through.

If you do have lots of information then it may be preferable to offer  If you do have lots of information then it may be preferable to offer  multiple-choice or rating questions

Statistical data Sets Statistical data Sets

These are a collection of data - maintained in an organized form. These are a collection of data - maintained in an organized form.

The basis of any statistical analysis has to start with the collection of  The basis of any statistical analysis has to start with the collection of  data, which is then analyzed using

data, which is then analyzed using statistical tools.statistical tools.

Therefore statistical data sets form the basis from which statistical Therefore statistical data sets form the basis from which statistical inferences can be drawn.

inferences can be drawn. Sta

Statistitistical data sets cal data sets may record as may record as much informatimuch information as on as is required byis required by the

the experimentexperiment or survey.or survey.

For example, to study the relationship between height and age, only For example, to study the relationship between height and age, only the measures of these two variables might be recorded

the measures of these two variables might be recorded in the data set.in the data set. Creating a statistical data set is only the f

Creating a statistical data set is only the first step in research.irst step in research. The interpretation and

The interpretation and validityvalidity of the inferences drawn from the data isof the inferences drawn from the data is what is most important.

what is most important.

The next step is to devise which statistical test you are going to use The next step is to devise which statistical test you are going to use and start to enter some numbers to judge the significance

US

US

E OF MIXED METHOD

E OF MIXED METHOD

S

S

US

US

E OF MIXED METHOD

E OF MIXED METHOD

S

S

How

How to choose an approach or methodto choose an approach or method D

Depepenends ds on on ththe e rereseseararch ch ququesestitionons s anand d ththe e rereseseararch ch skskilill l of of ththee researcher.

researcher. Appro

Appropriateness priateness of of MMethodethod

Some methods are better suited to a study of certain research questions than Some methods are better suited to a study of certain research questions than others. Some might even be totally inappropriate to your r

others. Some might even be totally inappropriate to your research question.esearch question. So type of research methodology depends on:

So type of research methodology depends on: Research Questions/problem

Research Questions/problem V

T

Type of data ± ype of data ± nominal, ordinal, interval or nominal, ordinal, interval or ratioratio

1.

1. N N ominal-scaled dataominal-scaled data

T

These are mainly qualitative and assigned to hese are mainly qualitative and assigned to a number of categories of equal a number of categories of equal importance,importance, for example, gender [male, female].

for example, gender [male, female].

2

2. . OOrrddiinnaall--ssccaalleed d ddaattaa

Ordinal-scaled data are mainly qualitative and assigned to coded categories. Ranking is Ordinal-scaled data are mainly qualitative and assigned to coded categories. Ranking is implied between categories, for example, Class [1

implied between categories, for example, Class [1stst_{years, 2years, 2}ndnd _{years, 3years, 3}rdrd _{years, Honours].years, Honours].}

3.

3. Interval-scaled dataInterval-scaled data

T

These are quantitative; they possess both order and distance but no origin, for example,hese are quantitative; they possess both order and distance but no origin, for example, IQ scores and temperature (say, in degrees Centigrade).

IQ scores and temperature (say, in degrees Centigrade). 4.

4. Ratio-scaled dataRatio-scaled data

Ratio-scaled data are quantitative wit

Ratio-scaled data are quantitative with a zero h a zero origin, for example, age, height and weight.origin, for example, age, height and weight.

T

They possehey possess ss all all the propethe propertirties es of of the othethe other r datdata a tytypespes. . ³Ra³Ratiotio´ ´ is is regregardarded ed as as thethe strongest level of data and

Whe

When n ththe e phphenoenomenmenon on beibeing ng invinvesestitigatgated ed is is nonot t welwell l undundererststooood, d, aa qualitative research can be used first to generate preliminary hypotheses, qualitative research can be used first to generate preliminary hypotheses, and then quantitative research is used

and then quantitative research is used to test specific hypotheses.to test specific hypotheses. Fo

For r cocomprmprehehenensisive ve ststudiudies, es, it it is is bebetttter er to to ususe e botboth h appapproroacachehes s (i.(i.e.e. qualita

qualitative and quantitive and quantitative), tative), a situatia situation where, the quanon where, the quantitativtitative methode method helps to test hypotheses and to make the study more objective and the helps to test hypotheses and to make the study more objective and the qualitative method helps to give a complete understanding or in-depth qualitative method helps to give a complete understanding or in-depth information on the phenomenon being studied ± in all its dimensions.

information on the phenomenon being studied ± in all its dimensions.

Complex studies, having many different research questions may use Complex studies, having many different research questions may use both approaches to answer particular questions or to address particular  both approaches to answer particular questions or to address particular  research problems.

research problems.

E.g., poverty is multidimensional in nature, i.e., it has social, political and E.g., poverty is multidimensional in nature, i.e., it has social, political and economic dimensi

economic dimensions. So, a ons. So, a poverty study may need both apoverty study may need both approacpproaches tohes to be studied ±

be studied ± a situation where the qualitative reseaa situation where the qualitative research methods are usedrch methods are used to investigate the social and political issues and help the voice of the poor  to investigate the social and political issues and help the voice of the poor  to be heard and quantitative methods are used to study the economic to be heard and quantitative methods are used to study the economic issues.

 According to Lee (1999), within a single study multiple qualitative and  According to Lee (1999), within a single study multiple qualitative and

qua

quantintitattative ive tectechniqhniques ues that that invoinvolve lve compcomplemelementantary ry datdata-ga-gatheatheringring act

activivititieies s can can be be appapplilied ed ththat at cocompempensnsatate e for for ththe e weweaknaknessesses es of of  individual tactics.

individual tactics.

The data becomes more comprehensive and quite informative. The data becomes more comprehensive and quite informative. E.

E.g. g. The The fafactctorors s afaffecfectiting ng an an ororgaganiznizatiationaonal l phephenomenomenonon n can can bebe quantitatively investigated ± using a field experiment and regression quantitatively investigated ± using a field experiment and regression analysis and qualitative techniques used to inform about additional, analysis and qualitative techniques used to inform about additional, little known variables, processes and conditions that might surround little known variables, processes and conditions that might surround the effects investi

Normally a semi-structured questionnaire is used to include bothNormally a semi-structured questionnaire is used to include both closed and open-ended questions.

closed and open-ended questions. Note:

Note:

Social experiences and the realities of the world are multidimensional and Social experiences and the realities of the world are multidimensional and so if phenomena are viewed only along a single dimension we cannot have a so if phenomena are viewed only along a single dimension we cannot have a complete picture of what is going on around us

complete picture of what is going on around us.. Qu

Qualialitattativive e emempirpiricaical l resresearearch ch tentends ds to to expexpose ose ththe e compcomplelexitxity y of of reareal l liflifee experience.

experience.

TThe he ususe e of of mmixixed ed mmetethohods ds anand d a a mumultltididimimenensisiononal al appapproaroach ch alallolows ws ththee re

reseseararchcher er to to frframame e ququesestitionons s wwhihich ch prprececisiselely y fofocucus s on on hohow w didiffffererenentt dimensions and scales of social existence are related.

dimensions and scales of social existence are related.

TThe particular strength of qualitative research lies in the knowledge providedhe particular strength of qualitative research lies in the knowledge provided regarding the dynamics of social processes, change and social context, and in its regarding the dynamics of social processes, change and social context, and in its ability to answer µhow¶ and µwhy¶ question

ability to answer µhow¶ and µwhy¶ questions in s in those domains.those domains.

TThere are two core elements to the logic of qualitative explanation: one relateshere are two core elements to the logic of qualitative explanation: one relates to a qualitative logic of comparison, e.g., between cases, situations, contexts, to a qualitative logic of comparison, e.g., between cases, situations, contexts, over time, etc and the second

over time, etc and the second relates to the significance of context.relates to the significance of context. Un

Underderstastandinding ng how how socsocial ial procprocessesses es and and phenphenomeomena na are are emembedbedded ded wiwithithinn sp

spececifific ic cocontntexexts ts mmakakes es popossssibible le ththe e dedevevelolopmpmenent t of of crcrososs-s-cocontntexextutualal generalizations.

T

This entails the use of contextual explanation, where emphasis is on his entails the use of contextual explanation, where emphasis is on explainingexplaining ho

how w difdiffefererent nt dimdimenensisionons s of of cocontntexext t totogegethther er lilink nk up up totogegethther er wiwith th ththee  processes or

 processes or questions driving the questions driving the studystudy..

Using mixed methods to µtriangulate¶ or to corroborate each other suggests an Using mixed methods to µtriangulate¶ or to corroborate each other suggests an integrated fram

integrated framework, where each method and form oework, where each method and form of data is used to highlightf data is used to highlight a specific part of the picture.

a specific part of the picture.

T

There might however be tensions arising from differences in approaches tohere might however be tensions arising from differences in approaches to data collection because of using

data collection because of using differendifferent t sets of assumptions.sets of assumptions.

T

To overcome any such potential difficulty the solution is in how explanationso overcome any such potential difficulty the solution is in how explanations are done.

are done.

Explanations do not have to be internally consistent to have a meaning and Explanations do not have to be internally consistent to have a meaning and capacity to explain.

capacity to explain.

If indeed the realities of the world are multidimensional ± political, social, If indeed the realities of the world are multidimensional ± political, social, cu

cultltururalal, , ececononomomicic, , etetc, c, thethen n exexplplananatiationons s ararisisining g frfrom om mmixixed ed datdata- a-collection methods would be likewise

collection methods would be likewise (see Cho and(see Cho and TTrent, 2006; Dixon-rent, 2006; Dixon-W

Remember: Remember:

Using a quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing Using a quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and proving or disproving

results and proving or disproving a hypothesis, anda hypothesis, and

Scientific experiments are useful for testing the data gained by a series Scientific experiments are useful for testing the data gained by a series of qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing of qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing down of possible directions for follow up research to take.