Pub 1993 Usda Fs Aginfo 666

United States Department of

Agriculture

Income Opportunities

in Special Forest

Products

Self-Help Suggestions for

Rural Entrepreneurs

United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Agriculture Information Bulletin 666 Washington, D.C May 1993

Income Opportunities

in Special Forest

Products

Self-Help Suggestions for

Rural Entrepreneurs

Margaret G. Thomas David R. Schumann, retired Midwest Research Institute State and Private Forestry 425 Volker Boulevard Forest Service

Kansas City, MO U.S. Department of Agriculture One Gifford Pinchot Drive Madison, WI

International system of units (SI conversion factors)

Conversion

English unit factor SI unit

acre 4,046 square meter (m2₎

board foot 0.002 cubic meter (m3₎

bushel (U.S.) 0.004 cubic meter (m3₎ Fahrenheit (°F) (°F–32) 0.55 Centrigrade (°C)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

gallon (U.S. liquid) 0.004 cubic meter (m3₎

hectare 1,000 square meter (m2₎

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

pound per square inch

(lb/in2_{) (stress) 6,894 Pascal (Pa)} pound per square foot

(lb/ft2_{) (weight) 4.88 kilogram per square} meter (kg/m2₎ pound per square foot

(lb/ft2_{) (stress) 6.89 kilopascal (kPa)} pound per cubic foot

(lb/ft3_{) (weight) 1.60 kilogram per cubic} meter (kg/m3₎ ounce (oz) (U.S. fluid) 0.00003 cubic meter (m3₎ quart (U.S. dry) 0.001 cubic meter (m3₎

ton (metric) 1,000 kilogram (kg)

yard cubic (yd3_{) 0.9 meter (m)}

The use of personal, trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader and does not constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service.

The policy of the United States Department of Agricul-ture Forest Service prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, religion, sex, or disability. Persons believing they have been discriminated against in any Forest Service related activity should write to: Chief, Forest Service, USDA, Washington, DC. 20250.

This publication was made possible through research sponsored by the USDA Forest Service, State and Private Forestry, and conducted by the Midwest Research Institute (MRI) between May 1991 and March 1992. David R. Schumann was the project manager for the State and Private Forestry Division. Margaret G. Thomas served as project leader at MRI. The MRI is an independent, not-for-profit organization that performs contract research and development for government and private sector clients. The research and support staff combine expertise and resources to carry out projects in more than four dozen scientific and technical disciplines. The Economics and Management Sciences Section of MRI provides expert assistance on rural development, strategic plans for economic and industrial development, management and business studies, market and feasibility analysis, and industry competitive assessment.

Special acknowledgments go to many contributors. At MRI, David Reisdorph assisted in gathering technical material on several forest topics. LaDene Morton and Howard Gadberry consulted on selected forest product topics, and James Damico assisted in locating and collecting extensive resource materials. The original production of this report was very capably supervised by Alice Crews and assisted by Cheryl Bender. At the Forest Products Laboratory, the final produc-tion of this report as an Agriculture Informaproduc-tion Bulletin was efficiently implemented by the staff of the Publishing Center.

Finally, the authors wish to express appreciation to the many individuals who responded to our surveys and requests for information and photographs related to special forest products. Their generosity in time and effort is what made this publication possible. These individuals are noted in the contributor lists in appendixes at ends of chapters. We also wish to thank the owners of the several small enterprises who provided us with profile information. Their willingness to be discussed brings the ideas and opportunities of this publication to life for others.

Margaret G. Thomas David R. Schumann, retired

Senior Resource Planner National Technology Transfer Coordinator Midwest Research Institute for Utilization and Marketing Research

State and Private Forestry USDA Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory

Preface

For many rural areas, the path to sustainable economic development will include innovative approaches to natural resource conservation, management, and utilization. This publication describes special forest products that represent opportunities for rural entrepreneurs to supplement their incomes. The types of products discussed in this publication include aromatics, berries and wild fruits, cones and seeds, forest botanicals, honey, mushrooms, nuts, syrup, and weaving and dyeing materials. Each chapter describes market and competition considerations, distribution and packag-ing, equipment needs, and resource conservation considerations, and presents a profile of a rural business marketing the products. In general, products suitable for very small or part-time operations are described. A suggested role for each type of microenterprise within a broader rural economic development framework is also mentioned. Each chapter concludes with a list of contributors and additional resources.

This publication supersedes USDA Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 278, "Special Forest Products for Profit: Self-Help Suggestions for Rural Areas Development," published in 1963.

Contents

Introduction ...7

Chapter 1. Aromatics...9

Chapter 2. Berries and Wild Fruit ...17

Chapter 3. Charcoal...25

Chapter 4. Chips, Shavings and Excelsior, Sawdust, Bark, and Pine Straw ...31

Chapter 5. Cones and Seeds ...37

Chapter 6. Cooking Wood, Smoke Wood, and Flavorwood...45

Chapter 7. Decorative Wood...49

Chapter 8. Forest Botanicals as Flavorings, Medicinals, and Pharmaceuticals ...55

Chapter 9. Greenery, Transplants, and Floral Products ...73

Chapter 10. Honey...129

Chapter 11. Mushrooms ...139

Chapter 12. Nuts...155

Chapter 13. Recreation and Wildlife Recreational Enterprises...163

Chapter 14. Syrup...177

Chapter 15. Weaving and Dyeing Materials ...189

Chapter 16. Specialty Wood Products...197 Page

Introduction

Times have been hard in rural America, and the search is on to find ways to increase job and income opportuni-ties for rural residents. There is growing awareness that for many rural areas the path to sustainable eco-nomic development will include innovative approaches to natural resource conservation, management, and utilization.

In the past, the focus on our Nation’s forest resources has been to view them primarily as sources of timber. Compared to all that has been written about timber management and traditional timber products, discussion of nontimber or special forest products has been almost nonexistent. One purpose of this publication is to encourage a closer look at our Nation’s forests and woodlands as intricate systems capable of sustained generation of a wide diversity of goods and services. In reality, in every region of the country there are nontimber commodities and services that represent opportunities for rural entrepreneurs to supplement their incomes. Rural areas with access to public or private forest resources, State and private forestry specialists, and rural economic and small business development organizations need to explore these new avenues in special forest products. The intended audience for this publication includes just these individuals: forestry specialists, community leaders, rural economic develop-ment professionals, and small business developdevelop-ment specialists who can effectively link potential entrepre-neurs with new forest-based opportunities and the technical and financial assistance they need to take advantage of these opportunities.

The types of special forest products discussed in this publication include aromatics; berries and wild fruits; charcoal; chips, shavings, excelsior, sawdust, bark, and pine straw; cones and seeds; cooking wood, smoke wood, and flavorwood; decorative wood; forest botani-cals as flavorings, medicinals, and pharmaceutibotani-cals; greenery and other floral products; honey; mushrooms; nuts; recreation and wildlife; specialty wood products; syrup; and weaving and dyeing materials. Each chapter includes a brief description of products and services, market and competition considerations, distribution and packaging, equipment needs, resource conservation considerations, and a profile of a rural business market-ing the products. In general, products suitable for very small (one- to two-person) or part-time operations were the types selected for discussion in the text. A suggested role for each type of microenterprise within a broader rural economic development framework is also

mentioned. Each chapter concludes with an appendix that presents contributors and additional resources for use in exploring each alternative.

Advice for New Entrepreneurs

and a project feasibility evaluation.

The personal evaluation should walk a potential entrepreneur through his or her reasons and primary goals for considering the special forest products industry. It is important to clearly identify and prioritize these goals and the special resources and skills that an indi-vidual can bring to a new venture. Prioritizing goals is necessary because an individual may be expecting more from the new enterprise than can probably occur. For example, if a certain level of supplemental income is the most important goal, the economic feasibility of certain products may simply be too low to meet that goal and the individual may be better off seeking extra income from other employment. On the other hand, an inventory of resources and skills may indicate underutilized human resources, such as family members, whose labor could effectively subsidize a small enterprise that would otherwise not be cost-competitive.

The market and project feasibility evaluations are very critical as well. These steps are made more difficult by the fact that the formal markets for special forest prod-ucts are more limited than for more traditional forest products. This means that market information is more difficult to obtain. Nonetheless, questions about the market to be answered include who will buy the product,

what exactly will be sold, and when the harvest and sale

would occur.

For the market evaluation, potential entrepreneurs need to identify their potential market, or buyers, through a number of approaches. The contacts and resources in

1 _{We acknowledge assistance, in this section, from Chris} Schnepf, Area Extension Forester, University of Idaho Cooperative Extension Service, Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, who provided a draft of a paper entitled “Special Forest Products: Considerations for Harvesters.”

this publication are a good starting place. Special forest product buyers may advertise through specialty

magazines, local newspapers, or trade shows. After locating a buyer, it is very important to clearly document the product specifications before harvest, then plan to meet or exceed these requirements. The markets are small, and one careless mistake in failing to deliver what a buyer was requesting may be enough to drop a small producer out of the market. Examples of product specifications include: how much material, what quality, what characteristics (size, color, etc.), what prices, what insect or other damages are allowable, interest in and price reductions for lower quality material, and packag-ing and shipppackag-ing requirements.

For many special forest products, it is critical to coordi-nate the timing of the harvest with the requirements of the buyers. This is especially important when dealing with products that have a limited shelf life, such as mushrooms or floral greenery, or products that have fairly seasonal demands, such as charcoal. Close attention must be paid to all applicable State and Federal regulations, particularly regarding edible products, potential noxious weeds, and products to be shipped out of State.

The project feasibility evaluation addresses the technical and the financial feasibility concerns of the potential enterprise. Technical concerns include where and how the products will be found, harvested, packaged, and distributed.

The location of harvest sites will vary with the product and the forest land resources available in a region. Many successful special forest product entrepreneurs do not themselves own forest land; in fact, most of them may not. Harvesting from State and Federal forests, from forest industry lands, and from private forest land owned are all possibilities. Permits are usually required to harvest commercially from public lands. There is a growing interest in leasing land, which allows an individual to manage an area of forest for the sustained production of several special forest products.

The watchword for the future of the special forest products industry will be sustainable harvesting. Re-search is needed to answer most of the important ques-tions about regeneration, long-term ecological impacts, and user conflicts from harvesting many of the products discussed in this publication. Until the pace of research on these nontraditional forest products quickens, guide-lines for recommended harvest locations and methods will vary from one region to another. It is the responsibil-ity of the harvester to learn all he or she can about the products and their forest stewardship responsibilities.

For the financial evaluation, a budget needs to be carefully developed, hopefully with the assistance of a forest specialist and a business planning specialist. At a minimum, the budget should itemize fixed and variable costs (including interest) and expected gross and net revenues. A careful inventory of resources already owned and time requirements (how much is available and when) is needed.

When all is finished, the potential entrepreneur needs a clear accounting of the hourly wage he or she could realistically expect to receive for the potential operation. The entrepreneur needs to ask, “Could I make more money at other available jobs or enterprises?” and “Do other advantages, such as being my own boss or spend-ing time in the forest, compensate for lower wages?” Needless to say, all of the above information from the personal, market, and physical and financial feasibility evaluations needs to be carefully developed and docu-mented. Market information, budgets, harvest sites, and the host of project feasibility information needed will be impossible to sort out and evaluate if not documented. This becomes even more critical if an entrepreneur seeks assistance in evaluating his or her idea (and such assis-tance is highly recommended) or in financing the project. A clear business plan is the single most important documentation needed by any individual approaching a rural banker with a request for a loan.

Technical and managerial assistance in these evaluations is available from a wide variety of public sources committed to an area’s rural economic development, agriculture, forestry, and small business development. Examples of these sources include forest service staff, county extension agents, local and regional economic development organizations, small business development centers, State departments of agriculture and economic development, banks, State universities, and local commu-nity colleges. The brief overview above and the brief summaries in the publication that follows in no way can substitute for direct, localized information and assistance to the potential special forest products entrepreneur.

Additional Resources

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Office for Small-Scale Agriculture publishes fact sheets on mushrooms, beekeeping, herbs, woodlots, and a number of other small-scale rural enterprises. The Office for Small-Scale Agriculture also publishes a quarterly newsletter, a directory, and a video on small-scale agriculture. To obtain further information on these publications and the video, contact the Office for Small-Scale Agriculture, Room 342-D, Aerospace Building, Washington, DC 20250–2200. (Telephone: 202–401–4640 or Fax: 202–401–5179)

Description of the Product

and Its Uses

Essential oils are the concentrated aromatic oils of plant leaves, flowers, seeds, bark, roots, and the rinds of some fruits. They vary in strength but are always very potent, and often smell best when diluted (as in other oils, colognes, and shampoos). Those essential oils obtained from trees are generally produced by a lengthy steam distillation process applied to either the chopped wood or the leaves and branch ends of the tree (table 1–1). There are other methods of producing oils from citrus fruits, flowers, and herbs as well (see appendix).

Essential oils have a great many uses and may be obtained from cultivated or wild plants. Examples of plants cultivated for their oils (among other uses) include peppermint, spearmint, mentha citrate, basil, clary sage, dill, tansy, wormseed, lemongrass, hops, and a host of other oil crops that are generally grown under contract (angelica, anise, chamomile, coriander, parsley, and tarragon). One commercial source of essential and fragrance oils (Frontier Herbs) lists over 50 essential oils: 25 oils used in cooking and over 20 oils used in potpourri crafting, cosmetics, and massage, among other uses. The most common essential oils used as insect repellents are the oils of cedar, lavender, eucalyptus, pennyroyal, and citronella. They are mostly used on pets and humans to repel fleas and mosquitoes.

Oils of commercial importance obtained from trees and wild plants include cedar leaf oil (from eastern white cedar or arborvitae, Thuja occidentalis L.), and from western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn.), balsam fir oil (Abies balsamea), hemlock oil (from eastern or Canadian hemlock, Tsuga canadensis), spruce oil (from Picea species), cedarwood oil Virginiana (from Juniperus virginiana), cedarwood oil Texas (from Juniperus mexicana), sweet birch oil (Betala lenta), and winter-green oil (from checkerberry winterwinter-green, Gaultheria procumbens). Some of this last group of oils will be discussed in this section.

Cedar leaf oil has been an item of commerce for over

100 years. Thuja cedar leaf oil is produced from the ends of branches and adherent leaves of the eastern arborvitae and western redcedar. It is a common ingredient in pine and cedar blends which are used in room sprays, talcs, and insecticides. It is a component in embalming fluids, microscope slide slips, industrial cleaners, deodorants, pharmaceuticals, cleaning fluids, salves, liniments, perfumes, shoe polishes, and soaps. Perhaps its largest use is in the preparation of patent medicines. For example, it is used in Vicks Vap-O-Rub, a cold-remedy salve that helps clear the nose and loosen the chest. A rather recent use is in the reodorizing of sawdust in “sawdust logs” or instant fire logs.

The main areas of production of cedar leaf oil have traditionally been in New York, Vermont, eastern Quebec, and southeastern Ontario, although some distillation has taken place in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and in British Columbia (western redcedar).

Balsam fir oil is used in fragrance formulation,

particu-larly in industrial and household products such as detergents, room fresheners, household cleaners, and disinfectants.

Hemlock oil and spruce oil are used for household

products, detergents, and soaps. Hemlock oil is not well defined, since there are four hemlock species native to North America, but true hemlock oil is obtained exclu-sively from eastern hemlock. Spruce oil is obtained from the young branches and adherent leaves of black and white spruce. Spruce oil has a pleasant, pine needle odor and is a major constituent in pine and cedar blends such as sprays, deodorants, soaps, and disinfectants. Both oils are used for personal care products and some cosmetics. There are many blends of hemlock, spruce, and fir needle oils that are produced, and the terms spruce and hemlock oils are often used interchangeably.

Cedarwood oil Virginiana is obtained from

steam-distilling sawdust, waste shavings, old stumps, and chipped logs of eastern redcedar. Most of the production comes from North Carolina. This oil is widely used in the fragrance industry in products such as soaps, air freshen-ers, floor polishes, and sanitation supplies. It is also used in deodorants, insecticides, mothproof bags, floor polishes, and janitorial supplies. In addition, a large percentage of the oil is used as a starting material for cedrol and cedryl acetate.

Cedarwood oil Texas has different uses and does not

compete in the marketplace with cedarwood oil

Chapter 1—Aromatics

Table 1–1. Aromatic oils

Balsam fir oil Spruce oil

Birch oil Cedarwood oil Texas Cedar leaf oil Cedarwood oil Virginiana Hemlock oil Wintergreen oil

odora) have all been used to some degree as fragrances. Sassafras oil, from the bark of the root of the sassafras tree, is used for scenting soaps.

Market and Competition

Considerations

Essential oils are at the core of the $10 billion U.S. food flavorings and cosmetic industry. Despite their being a very small volume commodity, the oils and their chemi-cal derivatives have a strategic importance because of their irreplaceability in certain formulas that have been well established and on the retail market for years. Most of the users of essential oils are located in highly developed and industrial countries such as the United States, Europe, and Japan.

There are nonetheless severe drawbacks to entering the essential oils and aromatics business. China (mainland) has historically been an aggressive promoter of crops with extractable essential oils. Theoretically, China’s State-owned or subsidized producers have the lasting power to bankrupt most private competition in the free world. Small producers in the United States also must contend with a virtual price control by a few large companies on the East Coast.

More recently, since the beginning of the current economic depression, the prices for essential oils have fallen at the same time that consumption has decreased. For example, cedarwood oil Texas has dropped from a total production of 600 drums per month to 350 drums per month, and this oil is one of the highest volume oils. The price for cedarwood oil Texas is now at 1975 levels ($2.75 per pound). The same is happening for a number of other essential oils. A low-grade Chinese cedarwood oil is being offered in New York at $1.70 per pound, which is below the cost price of any of the Texas producers.

Global competition and marketing have another peculiar pitfall. The currency exchange rate and the black market value of the U.S. dollar in certain essential oil-producing countries are such that these countries can afford to sell their goods for very low U.S. dollar prices. One can perhaps expect similar situations to occur with goods and commodities from Eastern Europe and the Common-wealth of Independent States (CIS) as soon as these countries return to some degree of production; many of these countries are essential oil producers.

There are two options available to the entrepreneur desiring to enter the essential oils market. The first is to enter the market in a fairly major way, for example, with an investment in an essential oil distillation plant of between $1 million and $2 million. Such a plant would need to be set up to process 50 tons of raw material a day. According to Mr. Gueric Boucard of Texarome, a fragrance material producing these conditions would

Texarome distillation plant for extracting natural oils. Courtesy of Texarome, Leakey, Texas. (SFP–13)

Virginiana. The chemical composition of the oils is similar, but Texas cedar oil is used almost entirely as feedstock for the manufacture of chemical derivatives of the oil, whereas cedarwood oil Virginiana is used mostly as is in fragrance formulas. Unlike the cedarwood oil Virginiana, the cedarwood oil Texas is not a by-product from the furniture industry—the Texas cedar is felled almost exclusively for land clearing to increase grazing lands for cattle ranching. Cedar trees from such clearing operations are sold to the distillation plants. It is esti-mated that 70 to 80 percent of this oil is used for cedrol isolation and subsequent acetylation.

Sweet birch oil is primarily produced in eastern

Pennsyl-vania and in South Carolina. It is used in the flavor industry in the manufacture of chewing gum, dentifrice products, and baked goods. It has also been used as an antirheumatic medicant and as a disinfectant. Since the wide availability of synthetic methyl salicylate, the demand for natural methyl salicylate oils has decreased greatly.

Wintergreen oil is produced from the leaves of the

low-lying evergreen plant called checkerberry wintergreen. It is used in flavoring chewing gum, other confections, soft drinks, and dentifrice products. In addition to a limited fragrance use (in fern and cypress perfumes), it has been used in a number of over-the-counter pharmaceuticals and personal care products, in particular, to reduce the swelling of tissues. A tea brewed from wintergreen leaves has been used to treat rheumatism, dysentery, and delayed menstruation, and to promote milk flow in nursing mothers.

In addition to the above wild plant oils, erigeron oil (from Erigeron canadensis, a common weed in the Midwest known as marestail), pennyroyal oil (from Hedeoma pulegeoides), and goldenrod oil (from Solidago

need to be met for this strategy to succeed (Boucard, personal correspondence):

1. The raw material must be either site-specific (for example, Texas cedarwood, Virginia cedarwood, and cedar leaf) or must be of a good chemovariety that produces a high yield of oil and can be raised as a fully mechanized crop (for example, basil oils, spice oils, tea tree oils, lemongrass oils, and coriander oils). In either case, the biomass by-products of the distilla-tion must have enough value that the overall cost of the oil itself is drastically reduced. Such value might be either as boiler fuel or as cattle feed additive. Ideally, boiler fuel materials would not only generate the steam for the distillation but also generate enough electricity needed to grind the materials and operate the plant.

2. The raw materials must be processed in a sufficiently large volume to achieve economies of scale, yet such volume should not constitute more than 25 percent of the current world production in the first phase. 3. The most cost-efficient and automated distillation

technology must be selected for the job.

4. The plant should be designed to include a vacuum-refining section with a fractionation column to allow the redistillation of the oil to remove dark colors and resins or to fractionate the oil into its different constituents. This would allow reblending to meet a customer’s exact specifications.

5. Preferably, a new producer should have a contract in hand for at least part of the production before going into business. Alternatively, the new producer could be in business with a line of products that will use the oil.

6. A new producer should start with sufficient operating cash to produce for at least 6 months without sales. (Large producers in the United States have been known to have sold oils for a full year below their manufacturing cost price in order to put a new producer out of business.)

7. The new trend in the flavor and fragrance industry is to keep inventories to a minimum and rely on essen-tial oil dealers to deliver the raw materials on time as needed, out of their own inventory. For this reason, producers must be able to offer substantial quantities of merchandise “ex warehouse” and available for immediate delivery, for example, spot New Jersey, spot Amsterdam, and spot Marseille. This requires considerable credits for product inventory, shipping, and warehousing costs.

8. Preliminary calculations need to show that the oil can be produced for one-half to two-thirds of its lowest list price during the past 10 years.

These are fairly sizable conditions certainly, and care is advised in pursuing this strategy. Basically, there is nothing that can be raised and distilled in this country that cannot be done cheaper elsewhere. The only valid niche is where one is raising and processing a crop or material that has other value as well, for example, as a feed crop for cattle feedlot operations. Celery, coriander, and related crops with high oil seeds can be high-quality feed crops. In such cases, their oils become almost by-products.

This raises the second alternative for essential oils production that is probably more consistent with rural small business development. This alternative is to develop a very small-scale distillation process in con-junction with an herb or other botanical already being harvested or grown for other reasons.

For example, a producer of an herb such as rosemary might consider building a very small-scale “back yard” distilling operation capable of using excess harvests of this herb to produce a small quantity of oil. A small distillation unit capable of using about 500 pounds of excess herbs might produce a gallon of rosemary oil, which could be carefully and attractively bottled and sold. Even such a relatively small amount of production could add value to the business if this oil were bottled in half-ounce bottles and sold for several dollars a bottle, perhaps through a retail shop associated with the grower’s business. Such a small-scale approach effec-tively raises the value of the oil from $30 per pound (its price on the world market) to about $150 per pound. The distillation process itself could be a drawing card for visitors and tourists.

The biggest problem for the very small entrepreneur trying to sell a manufactured oil is the reliability of his or her production. It is difficult to get enough production to convince a buyer—for example, a cosmetic company— to buy the product. A consumer-based product line cannot be introduced only to find that the oil for that commercial product is not in dependable supply. If a reliable supply and sufficient quantities of the raw material cannot be identified, the project will be dropped. The “harvested from the wild” forest materials for aromatics are predominantly the eastern white cedar and balsam fir. In particular, cedar leaf oil production has almost always been a “pocket money” production controlled mainly by farmers who distill the oil in fairly crude equipment during times when they are not doing usual farm work. Cedar oil was selling at about $9.50 a pound in 1978, although the market can widely fluctuate. It is estimated that 25 metric tons were produced in Canada and the United States in 1984.

Other estimated levels of production based on 1984 estimates are as follows:

Equipment Needs, Costs,

and Suppliers

A distillation unit that could achieve a very small-scale level of production would cost in the range of $5,000 to $10,000 and could be lease-purchased or bought. If purity and efficiency were not major concerns, it would also be possible to build a very small “home-made” distilling apparatus, since the overall concept is not complex. In fact, many of those in the cedar oil business design their own distilling equipment. The key is having a source of steam: the steam volatilizes the oil in the nodules of the boughs, and the steam-oil mix is put through a condenser. The oil and water separate and the oil is dipped off. Someone with a steam boiler can build a still with drums and chicken wire to hold the plant material.

Some kind of chopper is necessary to pulverize the plant material too. For example, it takes about two tons of eastern white cedar brush to fill a typical distilling tub, which means 4 to 6 days of hard work. Often the simplest of tools are used—a small axe, a handsaw to cut branches, and a machete. Depending on the season, the weather, and the quality of the brush, 2 tons yield anywhere from 20 to 40 pounds of oil (about 3 to 5 gallons).

Resource Conservation

Considerations

Environmental concerns can become linked with the production of essential oils on a case-by-case basis. For example, the harvesting of Texas cedar currently is being affected in some regions because of the listing of the yellow-cheeked warbler and the black cap vireo on the endangered species list. These birds nest in cedar trees, and fines up to $50,000 are being levied for cutting a cedar tree in certain areas where birds have been sighted.

Special Factors

Society is becoming more careful about the toxicity or other adverse effects of materials. Many small companies are virtually uninsurable by insurance companies, and product liability for a small line of retail cosmetic products is very expensive. One lawsuit can bankrupt a small company at any given time.

Processing plants can require up to 2 years of preparation because of permit requirements and environmental constraints, chiefly related to air quality and water quality concerns.

There are a lot of shysters in the aromatics business. For example, “stretching” an oil with synthetic compounds Estimated levels of production for some other oils, based

on older 1979 data, were:

The market trend for the above essential oils is currently a little downhill. The production of cedarwood oil Texas, for instance, has dropped by half, and the four plants producing this oil are all running at half capacity. The competition from China is strong, and other countries such as India and Indonesia are prepared to sell at a price below the U.S. cost price.

The primary buyers of aromatics in the flavor business are brokers and dealers, some of whom speculate in the purchase of raw materials. The companies that make the final product (perfumes, cosmetics, and foods) seldom get involved in purchasing the raw materials. Rather, it is the “recipe makers,” or the intermediary companies, which are most often the point of contact for a small rural entrepreneur. These are the companies whose job it is to make “recipes” of flavors and fragrances which they, in turn, sell to the perfume, cosmetic, and food companies. One of the hardest things in the essential oils business is getting a new product approved by an intermediary. It often takes a number of years for a user company to decide if a product is reliable, available, and wanted. Occasionally, though, one can find a smaller broker who will go out of his or her way to try to move an oil that has a new source.

Distribution and Packaging

Essential oils must be stored so that they remain unex-posed to air, light, heat, and heavy metals. If allowed to deteriorate, they become less fragrant, more viscous, and darker. Because they have no fatty acids, rancidity is not a problem. Properly stored and sealed, most oils last for years and some reputedly improve with age.

Trucking freight rates are becoming disproportionately high in some regions. One producer gave as an example the fact that in 30 drum lots, it costs $45 per drum to ship by truck from Leakey, Texas, to the Port of Houston (250 miles) and $55 per drum to send the same drum from the Port of Houston all the way to London, England.

Hemlock oil 1,000 to 2,000 pounds Spruce oil 4,000 to 5,000 pounds Sweet birch oil 5,500 pounds

Wintergreen oil 2,500 pounds Fir balsam oil 10 metric tons Cedarwood oil Virginiana 240 metric tons Cedarwood oil Texas 1,400 metric tons

that are difficult to detect chemically is not uncommon. It has been rumored in the trade that a certain amount of the so-called natural birch oil has never seen a birch tree. There is a labeling law in the United States related to the use of products in the food industry. All products that use the term “natural flavor” in the label must use com-pounds that are naturally derived. This requirement can create market opportunities in some instances. For example, there is a wild horsemint found in western Canada that is extremely rich in a compound called geraniol, which is a raw material used in the fragrance industry. If a manufacturer making a natural apricot oil that requires a little bit of geraniol uses geraniol from the horsemint plant, he or she can still continue to use the term “natural” in the labeling. A farmer in western Alberta, Canada, has begun production of wild horse-mint.

Profile

Mr. Gueric Boucard is President of Texarome Inc., a small producer of fragrance materials located in Leakey, Texas. Texarome has developed a very efficient method of extracting the natural essential oil from the native Texas cedar trees and stumps discarded by local ranchers in their land clearing operations. Through a unique continuous distillation process that uses pure steam and no chemicals, the company is able to separate and collect nearly 100 percent of the oil contained in the ground-up wood. The spent wood is used as fuel for the steam boilers, and all of the process waters are recycled. The steam is used to power and heat a cogeneration-type refining plant for breaking up crude cedarwood oil into more valuable natural fractions of the oil and a pure white crystal called cedrol. Such fractions are used by perfume chemists to produce an array of naturally based perfume chemicals used in soaps, household products, and fine fragrances.

Texarome is now developing its own line of perfumes with the introduction of “Texas Fragrances,” highlighted by a Texas “homegrown” perfume base of cedar. The company also custom distills and custom builds both conventional distillation plants and continuous distilla-tion plants.

Considerations for a Rural

Development Strategy

Essential oils, like many other specialty manufactured products, are almost certainly a product about which few bankers anywhere, much less bankers in rural areas, are likely to be knowledgeable. Similarly, rural bankers would have no easy way of obtaining statistics on such products. Therefore, securing financial assistance for

Sasha and Grover Corwin at Texarome portable distillation plant. Courtesy of Texarome. (SFP–12)

these enterprises would almost certainly require that these products be introduced (along with several other natural resource-based enterprises) through a concerted education program throughout a rural region. Such a program might involve bankers, small business ment centers, State departments of economic develop-ment and agriculture, a university center capable of the appropriate technology transfer, and community leaders.

Contributors

Gueric Boucard, President, Texarome Inc., P.O. Box 157, Leakey, TX 78873. 512–232–6079. Texarome is a large-scale producer of cedarwood oil Texas and cedarwood oil Virginiana. The company also offers consulting services and turnkey manufacturing capabilities for all sizes of essential oil distillation plants.

Robert De Geus, Utilization Specialist, Vermont Depart-ment of Forests, Parks, and Recreation, 103 South Main Street, 10 South, Waterbury, VT 05676. 802– 244–8716.

Brian M. Lawrence, R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, Winston-Salem, NC 27102. 919–741–5000. Dr. Jim Simon, Department of Horticulture, Purdue

University, West Lafayette, IN 47907. 317–494–1328. Robert Westbrook, Forest Products Technologist, U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 2500 Shreveport Highway, Pineville, LA 71360. 318–473–7272.

Bibliography

Barton, G.M. 1973. Wood chemistry of western coni-fers—questions and answers. Rep. VP–X–106. Vancouver, British Columbia: Western Forest Products Laboratory, Canadian Forestry Service. 28 p. Bender, F. 1963. Cedar leaf oils. Publication No. 1008. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Department of Forestry. 16 p.

Boucard, G.R. 1991. A continuous steam stripping process for the distillation of essential oils. Perfumer & Flavorist. 16:2–8.

Lawrence, Brian M., 1979. Commercial production of non-citrus essential oils in North America. Perfumer and Flavorist. 3:21–23.

Lawrence, Brian M. 1985. A review of the world production of essential oils (1984). Perfumer and Flavorist. Vol. 10, October/November: 5, 6, 8. Minore, D. 1983. Western redcedar: a literature review.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–150. Portland, Oregon: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. Whitcomb, Francis and Patricia. 1978. Distilling oil from

the tree of life. Yankee. 42(4):78–83, 122–23.

Resources

Chemical Marketing Reporter publishes monthly statistics on essential oils and their levels of import. Drug and Cosmetic Industry—Fragrance Materials

Suppliers Guide, Vol. 146: March 1990, p. 28(2). Frontier Herb Cooperative, Box 299, Norway, IA 52318.

319–227–7991.

The Herb Market Report, 1305 Vista Drive, Grants Pass, OR 97527.

Perfumer & Flavorist, Allured Publishing Corporation. Proceedings of the Annual Herb Growing and Marketing

Conferences.

Specialists in Essential Oils

General coniferae: Dr. Eugene Zavarin, University of

California, Forest Products Laboratory, Richmond, CA 94804. 510–231–9450.

General coniferae: Dr. Ernst von Rudloff, 503–375

Newport Avenue, Victoria, BC V8S 4E8, CANADA.

Juniper specialist: Dr. Robert P. Adams, Baylor

University, CSB Box 423, Waco, TX 76798. 817– 755–1159.

Pacific Northwest forest: Dr. Bjorn F. Hrutfiord,

College of Forest Resources, University of Washing-ton, Seattle, WA 98195.

Turpentine oil: Dr. Duane Zinkel, Forest Products

Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI 53705–2398.

Equipment

Waste, Inc., 2311 63rd Avenue East, Bradenton, FL 34203. 813–755–2900. Goldfire cogenerator.

Appendix A—Essential Oils as Natural Products

Essential oils are volatile odorous products obtained from natural raw materials by distillation, usually with water or steam, or, as in the case of citrus fruits, by a mechani-cal process. These products, which give to the plant its distinctive and often diagnostic odor, are complex mixtures of organic chemicals, the nature and relative proportions of which are determined by the genetics of the plant species and stage of development, environmen-tal factors (such as climate), and agricultural factors (such as soil conditions, nutrition, time of harvesting, and postharvesting handling prior to distillation) (Bernath, 1986).

The chemicals present in essential oils may be classified as follows:

• Hydrocarbons of the general formula (C5H6)n-terpenes.

• Oxygenated derivatives of these hydrocarbons. • Aromatic compounds having a benzenoid structure. • Compounds containing nitrogen or sulfur.

These constituents are synthesized by the plant during its normal development, and the chemical composition of the oil is often characteristic of a given plant species. These oils are produced in special secretory structures such as glandular trichomes and oil or resin ducts (Fahn, 1979; Schnepf, 1974).

Essential oils have industrial application in providing an agreeable scent or flavor to many commodities, including perfumes, toilet articles, soaps, and confectionery. In addition, many volatile oils possess therapeutic proper-ties and are used extensively in medical practice.

Commercial Extraction Methods

Aromatic Plants

In commercial practice, the removal of essential oils from plant material is accomplished by various methods, depending upon the quantity of oil present in the plant and the stability of the aromatic constituents of the oil. The tendency of some of these constituents to undergo changes when subjected to high temperatures makes it necessary in some cases to use special methods of extraction whereby the final product is obtained without decomposition or alteration (Guenther, 1972).

The four major extraction methods used are: • Hydro- or water distillation—only water is used. • Water and steam distillation—both water and steam

are used.

• Direct steam distillation—only steam is used. • Solvent extraction—a solvent is used.

In hydrodistillation, the plant material is in direct contact with water, while in steam distillation, live steam is used. In water-steam distillation, both water and steam are used, but the plant material is not in direct contact with water. In solvent extraction, the plant material is ex-tracted with some solvent and then the solvent is re-moved to obtain the oil.

Each method of distillation can be carried out at reduced pressure, atmospheric pressure, or excess pressure. Before distillation, the plant material is often field-cured, partially dried, or disintegrated to some extent. This latter disintegration process, commonly called comminution or size reduction, is used in the extraction or distillation of herbs or for their incorporation into food products (Heath, 1981). The reduction in particle size is to expose as many oil glands as is practically possible to the solvent or steam. It reduces the thickness of plant material through which diffusion must occur, greatly increasing the rate or speed of vaporization and distilla-tion of essential oils.

For larger and fixed installations, steam distillation is the preferred method. Conventional operations use batch and semibatch systems. A more cost-effective continuous system is now in use at the Texarome plant in Leakey, Texas. Solvent extraction techniques are also used for floral material, which is too sensitive for normal distillation methods. Enfleurage is another very long-established method of extracting delicate flora aromas by solution and adsorption into fat. The odorous fat is extracted with a solvent to recover the essential oil, and the residual fat may be used in the making of scented soap.

Recently, the liquid carbon dioxide extraction method and ultrasonics have been employed to increase the extraction rate and yield of essential oils.

Oleoresins

The nonvolatile flavoring constituents of herbs and spices are recoverable by extraction. In practice, a solvent is chosen that dissolves both essential oil and nonvolatiles present, the resulting solvent-free product being known as an oleoresin. Oleoresins have been used in the flavor industry for about half a century, and today oleoresins of many culinary herbs and spices are com-mercially available (Heath, 1981). Modern techniques using liquified gases such as carbon dioxide are used as well as the application of ultrasonics to increase the extraction rate and yields.

Quality Control

Quality control is the manufacturer’s approach to maintaining the quality of the products produced based on precisely defined specifications. The large-scale production methods applied to so many products which are consumed involve a close and very critical control of all materials used, processing conditions, handling, packaging, and, of course, the end product. Of great importance to the end user is the color, preferably light or “water white” color of the oils. This result requires all stainless steel processing equipment and refining facilities. The most elusive quality criterion is the “odor” for which there is no analytical machine other than the human nose.

Small-scale Extractive Methodologies

Each of the three commercial distillation methods can be scaled down for smaller samples depending upon the amount of oil in the tissue. Industry most often uses amodified clevenger trap as described by the American Spice Trade Association (ASTA, 1968). This system is relatively inexpensive, requires only a moderate amount of plant tissue, and is easy to operate. This is probably the best system for growers and industry looking to quantify the essential oil content in aromatic plants. For very small amounts of sample tissue, Godefroot and others (1981) and Bicchi and others (1983) developed micro-scale extraction systems for research that required only 2 hours for complete analysis starting from 1 gram of tissue. Also, small amounts of samples can be ex-tracted with an organic solvent and used straight for chromatographic analysis. Headspace analysis offers a potentially rapid method of extracting essential oils and requires very little plant material, but complete recovery occurs only for light volatile materials.

Bibliography

ASTA. 1968. Official analytical methods of the Ameri-can Spice Trade Association. AmeriAmeri-can Spice Trade Association, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 8–11. Bernath, J. 1986. Production ecology of secondary plant

products. In: Craker, L.E.; Simon, J.E. (eds.). Herbs, spices and medicinal plants: recent advances in botany, horticulture and pharmacology. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press: 185.

Bicchi, A.; Nana, D.G.M.; Frattini, C. 1983. Improved method for the analysis of small amounts of essential oils by microdistillation followed by capillary gas chromatography. Journal of Chromatography. 279: 409–416.

Fahn, A. 1979. Secretory tissues in plants, New York, NY: Academic Press. 158 p.

Godefroot, M.; Sandra, P.; Verzele, M. 1981. New improved method for quantitative essential oil analysis. Journal of Chromatography. 203: 325–335. Guenther, E. 1972. The production of essential oils. In:

Guenther, E. (ed.). The essential oils. [city unknown], Florida: Litton Educational Company: 87.

Heath, H.B. 1981. Source book of flavors. Westport, CT: AVI Publishing Company Inc. 863 p.

Kesterson, J.W.; Hendrickson, R.; Braddock, R.J. 1971. Florida citrus oils. [city unknown, FL]: Florida Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 749. 6 p.

Lacy, M.L.; Stephens, C.T.; Green, R.J.; York, A.C. 1981. Mint production in the midwestern United States. [place of publisher unknown]: [publisher unknown]: North Central Region Extension Pub. No. 155.

Schnepf, E. 1974. Gland cells. In: Robards, A.W. (ed.): Dynamic aspects of plant ultrastructure, London: McGraw–Hill: 331.

Chapter 2—Berries and Wild Fruit

Description of the

Product and Its Uses

North America possesses diverse native fruit trees and shrubs, the potential commercial possibilities of which have barely begun to be explored or appreciated. The most well known are probably the wild blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) and the big huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum). In the Pacific Northwest, the Himalayan blackberry (Rubus procerus) is a nonna-tive “escape” that is also common. Other popular wild berries are gooseberries, currants, strawberries, blackber-ries, blackcaps, and raspberries. Lesser known berries include lingonberries, juneberries, elderberries, mulber-ries, coralbermulber-ries, salmonbermulber-ries, and thimbleberries. Native fruits that are wild harvested include mayhaws, pawpaws, persimmons, chokecherries, crabapples, Oregon grape, and several types of wild plum. Staghorn sumac, prickly pear, deerberry, passionflower, and black cherry are also used for their berries and fruits

(table 2–1).

Most types of wild berries and fruits are found only in certain regions of the country. For example, the pawpaw, a smooth, creamy fruit that tastes like a blend of banana, mango, and pineapple, is the northernmost member of the custard apple family and the largest North American fruit. The center of its native distribution is in the Kentucky and Ohio area, but it can be found as far south as northern Florida, as far north as southern Canada, and as far west as Nebraska and Oklahoma. The persimmon, which is used in breads and pies, is primarily found in Indiana and Illinois.

Many berries and wild fruits are used fresh in baking products. The most popular application for wild blueber-ries, for example, is still blueberry muffins. But other

berries and wild fruits are gaining regional and even national and international markets as part of specialty berry and fruit products. Besides baked goods, these products can include jelly, jam, preserves, marmalade, pudding, butter, juice, salad dressing, syrup, sauce, candy, wine, cider, and even beer. A few, such as the juneberry (also called the serviceberry, Saskatoon, shadblow, and sarvis tree), can be found throughout much of North America. Pemmican, one of the staple foods of most of the Plains Indians, was made by pounding dried juneberries with buffalo meat. Today, serviceberries make delicious pies, jellies, and jams. They have a unique sweet flavor that tastes a little like almonds.

Prickly pear fruit is sold in many grocery stores. It can be eaten raw or made into preserves, marmalade, or syrup. Elderberries are used in elderberry blossom fritters, sauces, wines, and fruit juice or may be com-bined with other fruit for use in pies and tarts. Deerber-ries are reported to make delicious pies, jams, jellies, and marmalade. Mayhaw may be used in fruit juices and sherbet. Crabapples make excellent jellies or preserves, and black cherry makes fine pies, cider, and jelly (Payne et al., 1991).

Some native berries have medicinal or therapeutic uses as well. For example, in China, mayhaws are a very important cultivated crop, partly for their medicinal uses as a heart medication. There may be medicinal market opportunities in the United States as well for this and other native fruits and berries. Pawpaws have received attention lately because, in addition to food uses, the vegetative parts of the pawpaw plant contain compounds that exhibit highly effective pesticidal and anticancer properties (Callaway, 1992). They are also an excellent source of vitamin C. In fact, some USDA scientists have predicted the pawpaw may become one of our most valuable fruit trees. The American persimmon is also high in vitamins A and C. The berries of staghorn sumac are used in Appalachia to make a gargle to soothe a sore throat.

Market and Competition

Considerations

There is some indication that new markets for specialty native berries and fruits may be opening up. Blueberries, huckleberries, and mayhaws are among the wild berries and fruits that have already been used by rural entrepre-neurs and are briefly described.

Table 2–1. Berries and wild fruit with commercial potential

Blackberry Currant Mayhaw Prickly pear

Blackcap Deerberry Mulberry Raspberry

Black cherry Elderberry Oregon grape Salmonberry Blueberry Gooseberry Passionflower Serviceberry Chokeberry Huckleberry Pawpaw Staghorn

sumac Coralberry Juneberry Persimmon Strawberry Crabapple Lingonberry Plum Thimbleberry

Blueberries. The wild or lowbush blueberry is of great

interest to many forest managers in the north central and eastern United States. The lowbush blueberry is a woody deciduous shrub native to northeastern North America. Lowbush blueberries are harvested commercially from native wild stock in Maine and eastern Canada. It is believed that some of our native lowbush blueberry barrens have been producing for 900 years. Between 1984 and 1988, an average of over 17.5 million kilo-grams of blueberries were produced in Maine alone, from over 10,000 hectares of land (Yarborough, 1991). Maine has had crops of lowbush blueberries approaching 50 million pounds. Most are flash-frozen, and some are exported as far away as Japan, where their color is prized as well as their taste.

Most of the U.S. wild blueberry crop under cultivation is dedicated to industrial applications. Nearly half of the U.S. commercially produced blueberries are now from wild bushes, and the major increases in volume have come from wild production. Cultivated blueberry production has increased at a rate of approximately 5 percent per year for a number of years, but production of wild blueberries has increased at double that rate. Per capita consumption of wild and cultivated blueberries has doubled in the last 10 years.

Only 2 to 3 percent is sold as fresh produce, almost exclusively in the Northeast in cities close to the growing areas of Maine and eastern Canada. Wild blueberries are especially appropriate for baking because their firm skin helps them maintain their shape throughout processing. They are a good source of nutrition (providing dietary fiber, vitamin C and other vitamins, and minerals including calcium, iron, and zinc) and are low in sodium and calories.

Particularly in northern Minnesota and in Maine, local residents regularly harvest wild blueberries. In especially good berry years or hard economic times, local blueber-ries appear for sale on roadsides and in supermarkets. In Maine, blueberry picking is one of many money-making activities for rural residents and Native Americans, some of whom have started mail order jam and jelly businesses based on wild blueberries.

Another opportunity from wild blueberry gathering is as a recreation and tourism activity. A survey of northern Minnesota resorts showed that 29 percent of the resort’s visitors picked wild berries and felt that this added greatly to tourist experience in that region. Research has shown that it is actually cheaper to buy wild blueberries than it is to pick them (Shubat, 1987). It is apparent that the recreational benefits of wild berry picking (being outdoors in a peaceful setting, finding a natural food) are more important than potential commercial benefits in many cases. These recreational benefits can be creatively expanded, too. For example, the Annual Blueberry/Art Festival in Ely, Minnesota, is one of Minnesota’s most

popular art/craft festivals. It features foods that reflect the ethnic mix of the area, and blueberry delicacies include ice cream, muffins, pies, pancakes, pastries, and breads.

Huckleberries. The western huckleberry2 _{is also} becoming recognized as an important forest resource. In State or national forests where huckleberries are rela-tively accessible, wild huckleberry picking can be a significant boon to recreation and tourism. For example, in northern Idaho, many visitors come to certain areas expressly to pick and sell huckleberries. Many are retirees who come in campers, camp in the woods, and pick and sell huckleberries to local buyers and local restaurants to supplement their incomes. Pickers can earn from $12 to $18 a gallon for huckleberries, with $14 a gallon being an average. This equates to $1 to $2 per pound. It takes about 1-1/2 hours to pick a gallon of huckleberries, which are more time-consuming to harvest than wild blueberries because they grow individually rather than in clusters.

The local restaurants, in turn, offer special huckleberry products to the tourist trade. Huckleberry “raisins” and huckleberry chocolate candy are examples of unique products of northern Idaho and western Montana that have already found a commercial niche market. Berry production is surprisingly high in some huckle-berry fields. Yields of 100 gallons per acre have been reported, and over 75 gallons per acre are not unusual in a good huckleberry year. Research is being undertaken at the University of Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station to determine which varieties of huckleberries might be capable of farm cultivation.

As with wild blueberries, the market opportunity for a unique recreational experience may be just as great as the market opportunity for a food product. Berry picking has a high recreational value. During huckleberry season, thousands of additional vehicles may pass through a berry-rich ranger district during a single huckleberry-season weekend.

Mayhaws. The mayhaw is a member of the Crataegus

family and is a variety of Southern hawthorn that yields yellow to bright-red fruits with a taste similar to a tart crabapple. It is one of the last wild U.S. fruit trees that has not yet been commercialized. It can be found in the southeastern United States, usually in wet, swampy areas due primarily to the fact that much of the uplands in the southeastern United States have been burned over at some point in history. Because the mayhaw tree is very heat-sensitive, wet, swampy areas are among the few habitats where they have survived.

2 _{Note: A poor-quality eastern fruit (Gaylussacia) is} called “huckleberry” in the eastern United States and should not be confused with Vacciniums.

Mayhaws are used to make jellies, marmalades, pre-serves, salad dressings, wines, syrups, sauces, and desserts. There are probably already 10 entrepreneurs who are selling mayhaw products, even though there are probably fewer than 15 commercial acres of mayhaw trees in the United States.

Renewed interest in mayhaws is also occurring in Louisiana, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. While mayhaw jelly has been renowned in the South for over a hundred years, entire recipe books have been developed to promote this native fruit in the last several years. Articles have been run in magazines such as Southern Living and Louisiana Life on the commercialization of the mayhaw as an orchard fruit. Some who are knowl-edgeable about the mayhaw feel that within 8-10 years, the tree will probably be found in commercial orchards.

Distribution and Packaging

It is worth noting that if the cost of labor, packaging, and shipping were added to the cost of harvesting wild berries, there would not be a general market for them as a fresh product. For example, fresh huckleberries would probably cost over $5 a pound if shipped fresh to major population centers. Commercial successes with wild fruits and berries have all relied on processed rather than fresh products since there are so many alternative commercially produced fresh fruits and berries (strawber-ries, raspber(strawber-ries, and cultivated highbush blueberries) that are less expensive.

Also, many of the wild berries, though delicious, have little or no shelf life. Some “die” in less than a day. But dried berries are a potential product with largely un-tapped possibilities, since drying extends the shelf life significantly.

Equipment Needs, Costs,

and Suppliers

Most picking of wild berries and fruits is done by hand. However, some experienced berry pickers use small rakes to speed the process. The disadvantage of this technique is that it collects a lot of leaves and twigs, so the berries must be cleaned as well. Rolling across a wool blanket, picking out the leaves, or floating the leaves and twigs in water are all ways of cleaning. Some pickers beat on the bushes with a hoop-type cradle to catch the berries. A “huckleberry combine” has also been used, which is a wire arrangement to separate the ripe berries from everything else.

Flash freezing is not practical for the small producer. A producer has to be prepared to process hundreds of pounds, perhaps a thousand pounds per day, before flash freezing is economical, and some suppliers of freezing

equipment recommend a thousand pounds per hour. Most people simply use very cold chest freezers and bag the berries frozen.

Resource Conservation

Considerations

The major considerations in increased use of public lands for the harvesting of wild fruits and berries relate to potential conflicts with other uses and users, and the best management practices to increase yields.

Potential conflicts. Resource managers in two areas of

the Gulf Coast are currently dealing with questions of potential use conflicts over the commercial harvesting of mayhaws. Lessons learned in these cases will no doubt be applicable to resource managers in many other regions of the country dealing with similar questions over wild harvesting for commercial use.

The Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge Area is a 250-acre wildlife refuge near Colquitt, Georgia. This refuge was recently acquired by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and includes many mayhaw trees, the berries of which have historically been harvested by local residents. In the past few years, much of this harvest was sold to a local company called The Mayhaw Tree, Inc., which has created a market for mayhaw jelly and other products (see profile section of this chapter).

Normally, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service issues permits to individuals for collecting berries or nuts on refuge lands. In the case of the Eufaula area, which is physically quite removed from the offices of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Service has elected instead to issue permits directly to The Mayhaw Tree, Inc. and the local IGA store, which are the two primary commer-cial outlets for the sale of the berries. There is currently no charge for these permits, even though the harvested berries are sold commercially, but the refuge manager has pointed out that this policy might need to change if the demand for picking were to become so great that there were user conflicts, in which case some charge for mayhaw collecting might be put into place, possibly on a bid basis.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service observed the area closely in April and May of 1992 to determine the level of use and also to ensure that inappropriate uses of the wildlife refuge do not occur. The area includes sand dunes, longleaf pine, and wire grass habitat that is now relatively rare for the region. The refuge is also heavily populated by gopher tortoises and possibly by indigo snakes, which are both threatened species. The primary objectives for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service will be to limit public access and disturbance as much as possible. That portion of the tract that is heavily wooded with mayhaw trees is generally away from the tortoise

area and will continue to be open for berry picking but with certain restrictions, such as no vehicles. A workshop between area biologists and the public was held in February 1992 to discuss the issues.

In the State of Louisiana, a potential exists for conflict in the harvesting of mayhaws from several Wildlife Management Areas (WMA's). Louisiana currently has a regulation against the harvesting of hard mast (acorns, pecans, etc.) and various plant species, but has never addressed the soft fruits. In past years, individuals or families came into certain areas to gather mayhaws for their own use. But in 1991, interest in collecting mayhaws increased substantially. In one area, the Saline Wildlife Management Area, fairly large crews of as many as 15 men came into the area to harvest mayhaws. At this point, the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries saw a potential for conflict with other recre-ational users and abuse of a resource. There was also concern for damage to the trees and nesting songbirds. There are no regulations on harvest methods, and one method used is to pound the base of the trees with a sledgehammer or other heavy object to make the berries fall off, a practice which can split the wood of the tree and disturb any nesting wildlife.

In response to the concern voiced by the wildlife manag-ers, legislation was passed by the State of Louisiana to keep the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries from limiting the volume of mayhaws for commercial use. The resulting regulations limit the recreational user to 5 gallons of mayhaws per person per day. This seems more than adequate for the home user. Individual members of a family are eligible for 5 gallons each. Commercial operators will be required only to obtain a permit from the district office or a field person, and the commercial harvest is unlimited. Hopefully, the permit will allow the department to track the actual amount of berries harvested. Damage to or removal of trees, shrubs, hard mast, and wild plants is now expressly prohibited without prior approval.

The berries are generally not considered to have impor-tant wildlife food value, although relatively little is known about which species depend on the berries. They are probably eaten by various passerine birds, turkeys, and deer, but, because they ripen in the spring when food is not generally a limiting factor for these populations, the mayhaws are probably not critical. Often they ripen when the land is inundated.

Resource management of blueberries and huckle-berries. Resource management of the wild or lowbush

blueberry in the wild is a subject of great interest to many forest managers in the north central and eastern United States. Berries do best in open, acidic sites, although they can also do well in fairly open wooded sites. The

lowbush blueberry grows from seed and from

under-ground rhizomes. New parent plants are started from seed, usually by birds and other mammals. After 3 to 6 years, the plants become branchy and stop producing as many berries. Any disturbance which prunes the branches encourages the spread of underground rhi-zomes, which in turn develop roots and new stems, which produce larger and more numerous berries than the parent plant. To maintain the open sites and to prune the branches, it has been felt that it was necessary to burn over lowbush blueberry areas. It is believed that some of our native lowbush blueberry barrens have been managed by burning for an estimated 900 years.

A few national forests, such as the Chippewa National Forest in Minnesota, develop and manage sites as blueberry picking areas. Periodically, a few hundred acres of blueberry area are burned in the Chippewa to encourage new and more productive growth of the native blueberries. Sites are selected for management based on the availability of existing plants, the accessibility of the site, and historical picking use. Late fall burning is preferred. However, burning has drawbacks. If the surface gets too hot, burning can destroy the organic layer of the soil, thereby exposing rhizomes to heat, drought, and extreme cold.

On good sites, up to 4,000 pounds of berries can be produced per acre. However, information regarding the location and ripening of berry sites has always been informal, low key, and by “word of mouth” in the Chippewa National Forest.

While many people think the huckleberry is a wild blueberry, the morphology and physiology of the big huckleberry (native to the Pacific Northwest) are very different and the plants have different management requirements. Huckleberry fields occupied an estimated 100,000 acres of Oregon and Washington forests about 20 years ago, and these fields owed their existence to wildfires that created conditions favorable to the growth of huckleberry plants. As fire prevention has succeeded, trees have invaded many of these high-quality huckle-berry fields. The trees eventually form dense subalpine forests that crowd and shade the shrubs, eventually eliminating huckleberry production. However, unlike blueberries, huckleberry management does not recom-mend burning. Control of overstory trees is best done by killing individual trees.

Profiles

L

Idaho, sells several huckleberry products to specialty stores in the Northwest.

The company purchases berries from local pickers for about $2 a pound during a 4-week summer season. They are processed and bottled by a specialty kitchen and