Piping

“Perfect Knowledge of

Piping Engineering”

A Practical Guide in Engineering Technique for Mechanical Engineering Degree/Diploma final year student preparing for service interview. I do not claim that “Perfect Knowledge of Piping Engineering” is the final word in Piping Engineering. I have tried my best to share the knowledge and experience being common to more Engineers who came forward to co-operate in the field of knowledge and pool their experience to make it better for the Mechanical Engineers whether final year students or fresher in service or working as a junior Engineer in construction field and doing the Piping Engineering job. It is easy to grasp the basic knowledge and principles of Piping Engineering

This book is devised and planned to be practical help and is made to be most valuable reference book. I will feel myself proud that my efforts are rewarded, if this book contributes even to a small group of students or fresher or working junior Engineer in acquiring and understanding of the subject. I sincerely record my gratitude to Mr. Ram Babu Sao, experienced and versatile Mechanical Engineer and friend of mine whose promise and unstinted labour in providing assistance to publish this book. Otherwise this book could have not been published.

I acknowledge his contribution gratefully. I am extremely grateful to all those who have assisted me in bringing out this edition of the book.

Mumbai Sanjay Kumar Gupta August 2015

@ Copyright: Author-2004 CAUTION

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopy without permission in writing from the publishers.

Disclaimer

The book “ Perfect Knowledge of Piping Engineering” is not a writer’s whole & sole product. It is a combination of the knowledge and expertise of the author and the Data collected from different Codes, Standards and Books, specially researched to meet the objective and to enhance the knowledge of piping engineers. Wherever necessary, the reference of the Codes, Standards or other Books has been given in this book. The Data in this book provides only information, knowledge, guidance and reference to engineers and shall not permit the engineers to use these Data for designing any piping system.

ISBN-13: 978-1511561624 ISBN-10: 1511561629 First Edition: August, 2015 Publisher: Amazon

Preface

It gives me great pleasure and sense of deep satisfaction to publish this book of “Perfect Knowledge

of Piping Engineering”. This book has proved to be a friend and guide to many Engineering Students,

Engineers, Contractors, Construction Companies and Consultants. The total practical approach of this book explodes the math that, even the piping engineering subject is tough and difficult to understand, a general reader or beginners willing to know about the subject, will find the content very easy and simple to follow. The excellence of the book will be appreciated by the readers from all parts of India and abroad after publication of the First Edition.

There is so much strife and struggle in the present time as it was never before. This is a time of ready-made food and fast food. Nobody has time to cook the food and then eat. Only this feeling motivated me and necessitated in publishing this book. This is compact and full of all information at one place in a simple language.

Today the eyes of the whole of the world are fixed on India for any kind of development.

The need for development has been felt for quite some time back that this book is written on piping work which may contain all the aspect of piping with illustrations so that complete information is conveyed in a simple language. I am confident that this book will help to all technicians, supervisors, and engineers in achieving his object and success in every field of piping work.

I have given the gist of Indian and international books, standards, codes, and specifications on piping work in this book. At the same time, I have tried to make you understand about what is the piping work. These facts & figures are collected from various books, standards, and specifications and incorporated here in this book for the first time for reference by the common technical men. Behind all this, there is our exhaustive study and collections. More than the study is the presentation of the subject matter and even much more than the presentation of the subject matter is long years of experience and association with the piping work all over India and abroad while working with M/S Engineers India Limited, an internationally reputed engineering consultancy organization. This adds some kind of value to the book. A systematic, consistent, and clear presentation of concepts through explanatory notes, figures, and examples are the main aspects of this book.

While publishing this book, I have constantly kept in mind the requirements of all engineering professionals, and the various difficulties they face while performing their job. To make the book really useful at all levels, it has been written in an easy style and in a simple manner, so that a professional can grasp the subject independently by referring this book. Care has been taken to make this book as self-explanatory as possible and within the technical ability of an average professional.

In short, it is earnestly hoped that this treatise will earn the appreciation of all technical professional all over the world.

Contents

1. Introduction 1-112

1.1 Measures & Weights Units 1-5 1.2 Conversion 5-12 1.3 Physics 12-30 1.4 Hydraulic engineering 30-36 1.5 Chemistry 36-39 1.6 Mathematics 39-57 1.7 Abbreviations 57-63 1.8 Definitions 63-102 1.9 List of Codes and Standards 102-107 1.10 List of Vendors and Manufacturers 107-111 1.11 Books Catalogues 111-112

2. Piping Materials 113-162

2.1 Materials Classification 113-127 2.2 Metallurgical Structure of Metal 127-132 2.3 Mechanical Properties 132-134 2.4 Factors Affecting Mechanical Properties 134-135 2.5 Temperature Affecting Mechanical Properties 136-137

2.6 Factors Affecting Service Feature 138-140 2.7 Elements affecting Alloy Steel 140-145

2.8 Selection of Piping Materials 146-153 2.9 Piping Materials for Specific Fluid Services 154-161 2.10 Piping Material-Identification 161-162

3. Corrosion of Piping Metal 163-186

3.1 Theory of Corrosion 163-167 3.2 Factors Affecting Corrosion 167-168

3.3 Corrosion Table 168-186

4. Piping Design 187-452

4.1 General 187-188 4.2 Design Requirements 188-191 4.3 Design Conditions 191-201 4.4 Piping Design Criteria- “Part-1” 201-363 4.4.1 “Temperature-Pressure Rating” Design Criteria 202-359 4.4.2 “Stress – Strain” Design Criteria 359-363 4.5 Piping Design Criteria-“Part-2” 363-366 4.5.1 Pressure Integrity-Design 363-364 4.5.2 Pipe Wall Thickness (tm.) 364-366 4.6 Piping Design Criteria-“Part-3 “ 366-396 4.6.1 Sizing of Liquid Line-Single phase 367-376 4.6.2 Sizing of Gas Line-Single Phase 376-377 4.6.3 Sizing of Liquid / Gas Line-Two Phase 377-384

4.6.4 Pipe Sizing in Steam System 384-396 4.7 Piping Flexibility and Supports-Design 396-406

4.8 Piping Supports-Design 406-421

4.9 Piping Joints-Design 421-423 4.10 Design Engineering and Limitations 424-427 4.11 Piping Engineering Standard-Data 427-438 4.12 Plant Layout 438-448 4.13 Design Example 1 448-452

5. Piping Components 453-528

5.1 Pipe and Tube 453-463 5.2 Pipe Fittings 463-473 5.3 Flanges 473-486 5.4 Valves 486-505 5.5 Piping other Components 505-528

6. Piping Project Management 529-542

6.1 Project Introduction 529-529 6.2 Project Management 529-531 6.3 Network Analysis Package 531-534 6.4 Scheduling Technique 534-537 6.5 Project Monitoring System 537-539 6.6 Standard Man-hour for Piping 539-542

7. Piping Assembly 543-560

7.1 Applicable Codes and Standards 544-544 7.2 Piping Fabrication and Assembly 544-560

7.2.1 Piping Cutting 445-554 7.2.2 Piping Fabrication 554-560

8.0 Applicable Codes of Welding 561-574 8.1 Welding Symbols 574-580 8.2 Welding Joint Type 580-584 8.3 Weld Orientation 584-588 8.4 Welding Accessories 588-593 8.5 Typical Metal Welding 593-594 8.6 Welding of Dissimilar Metals 594-597 8.7 Estimation of Welding Cost 597-599 8.8 Welding Defects 600-603 8.9 Welding Distortion & Remedies 603-607 8.10 Welding Variables & Positions 607-611 8.11 Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) 612-619 8.12 Welding Procedure Qualification Records (PQR) 619-622 8.13 Welder Performance Qualifications (Certification) 622-625 8.14 WPS / PQR Qualification tests 625-626

9. Piping Inspection 627-694

9.1 General 627-627 9.2 Applicable Codes and Standards 627-630

9.3 Levels of certification 630-631 9.4 Destructive Examinations & Tests 631-632

9.5 Non-Destructive Test 632-634 9.6 N.D.T Examination Requirements 634-642 9.7 Weld Imperfections and Acceptance Limit 642-643 9.8 Inspection and Testing Instruments 643-644 9.9 Visual Inspection 644-649 9.10 Radiographic Inspection (RT) 649-669 9.11 Magnetic Particle Examination 669-672

9.12 Eddy current 672-673 9.13 Dye penetrant Test (DPT / LPT) 674-675

9.14 Ultrasonic Test (UT) 675-682 9.15 Hardness Test 682-684 9.16 Hydrostatic Test 684-690

9.17 Pneumatic Test 690-691 9.18 Hydrostatic-Pneumatic Test 691-691 9.19 Sensitive Leak Test 691-692 9.20 Gas and Bubble Solution Test 692-692

9.21 Vacuum Box Test 692-693 9.22 Alternative Leak Test 693-693 9.23 Repair of Weld 693-693

9.24 Documentation and Records 693-694

10. Piping Heat Tracing 695-702

10.1 General 695-695 10.2 Steam Tracing Applications 695-702 10.3 Inspection and Testing 702-702

11.1 General 703-706 11.2 Plastic Lined Piping Systems 706-712 11.3 Other Lined Piping Systems 712-712

12. Jacketed Piping 713-722

12.1 General 713-719 12.2 Piping Sizing 719-720 12.3 Jacketed Piping Systems 720-720

12.4 Leak Test 720-722

13. Piping Painting 723-736

13.0 General 723-723 13.1 Painting Applicable Codes 723-724 13.2 Paint Materials 724-725 13.3 Primer Paint Materials Selection 725-726 13.4 Finish Paint Materials Selection 726-728 13.5 Painting 728-729 13.6 Surface Preparation 729-731 13.7 Paint Application 731-733 13.8 Colour Coding 733-734 13.9 Painting Inspection 734-736

14 Piping Coating & Wrapping 737-742

14.1 General 737-737 14.2 Applicable Codes and Standards 737-737 14.3 Coating & Wrapping Materials 737-739

14.4 Surface Preparation 739-740 14.5 Application 740-741 14.6 Inspection 741-742 15. Cathode Protection 743-746 16. Piping Insulation 747-762 16.0 General 747-747 16.1 Applicable Codes 747-747 16.2 Properties of Thermal Insulation 748-753 16.3 Theory of Heat Loss 753-753 16.4 Theory of Heat transfer 753-754

16.5 Insulation Materials 754-758 16.6 Application of Cold Insulation 758-760 16.7 Application of Hot Insulation 761-762 16.8 Insulation Inspection 762-762

17. Non-Metallic Piping 763-784

17.1 Plastic Piping Systems 763-771 17.2 Rubber and Elastomeric Piping Systems 771-777 17.3 Thermo Set Piping Systems 777-784

1

Introduction

1.1 Measures & Weights Units

There are different unit of measures and weights being used in the world. This chapter is intended to guide for expressing weight and measures, their units and symbols. The list of codes and standards of weights and measures, their units and symbols are also given here for further reference:

1) ASTM E380 : Standard for Metric Practice. 2) ASTM E268 : Standard for Metric Practice

3) NIST SP-330 : National Institute of Standards and Technology. 4) American National Metric Council : Metric Editorial Guide

5) ASME Guide S 1.1 : ASME Orientation Guide for use of SI (Metric) Units.

The International System of Units (SI) on Weights and Measures has the Base units along with the Derived units. The “Absolute units” or Base units are seven, as given below.

Meter: The Meter is the unit of Length. The Meter is the length of the path travelled by light in

vacuum during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second. It follows that the speed of light in vacuum is 299792458 meters per second, i.e. 299 792 458 m/s.

Kilogram: The kilogram is the unit of Mass. It is equal to the mass of the international prototype of

the kilogram; an artefact made of platinum-iridium and is kept at the BIPM.

Table: Absolute SI units

Base quantity Name of Units Symbol for

Quantity

Length Meter m

Mass Kilogram kg

Time Second s

Electric current Ampere A

Thermodynamic temperature Degree Kelvin °K Amount of substance Mole mol

Luminous intensity Candela cd

Second: The second is the unit of Time, precisely defined by the International Astronomical Union

based on a transition between two energy levels of an atom or a molecule, which is much more accurate. The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom. This unit of

second is a very precise definition of the unit of time and is indispensable for science and technology. Another definition of Second is the unit of time and is equal to the fraction 1/86400 of the Mean Solar Day defined by the astronomers. But due to irregularities in the rotation of the Earth made, this definition of Second is an unsatisfactory definition.

Ampere: Ampere is the unit for Current. The ampere is that constant current, which produce a force

equal to 2 x 10–7 Newton per meter of length between two straight parallel conductors of infinite length and of negligible circular cross-section and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum. It follows that the magnetic constant, 0, known as the permeability of free space, is exactly 4 x 10–7 henries per meter, 0 = 4 x 10–7 H/m.

Temperature: The Kelvin and the degree Celsius are units of Temperature. Kelvin is the unit of

Thermodynamic Temperature, which is assigned to the temperature 273.16 K. The Kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the Thermodynamic Temperature of the triple point of water. The triple point of water has the isotopic composition amount of substance ratios, e.g., 0.000 155 76 moles of 2H per mole of 1H; and 0.000 379 9 mole of 17O per mole of 16O; and 0.002 005 2 mole of 18O per mole of 16O. Thermodynamic Temperature is expressed as a symbol T, in terms of its difference from the reference temperature T0 = 273.15 K, the ice point. This difference is called Celsius temperature, symbol t, which is defined by the quantity equation: t = T – T0. The unit of Celsius temperature is the degree Celsius, symbol °C, which is equal in magnitude to the Kelvin. A difference or interval of temperature may be expressed in Kelvin or in degrees Celsius, the numerical value of the temperature difference being the same. However, the numerical value of a Celsius temperature expressed in degrees Celsius is related to the numerical value of the Thermodynamic Temperature expressed in Kelvin by the relation: t/°C = T/K – 273.15.

Mole: The mole is the unit of an amount of a substance which contains as many elementary entities as

there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12 and its symbol is "mol". The molar mass of carbon 12 is exactly 12 grams per mole, M (12C) = 12 g/mol.

Gram-atom/Gram-molecule: "Gram-atom" and "Gram-molecule" is the Units of an amount of

chemical element or compound. These units have a direct connection with "atomic weights" and "molecular weights", which are in fact relative masses. "Atomic weights" are referred to the atomic weight of oxygen. Physicists separate the isotopes in a mass spectrometer and attribute the value 16 to one of the isotopes of oxygen. Chemists attribute the same value to the mixture of isotopes 16, 17 and 18.

Candela: The candela is the unit of Luminous Intensity of Light in a given direction that emits

monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and has a radiant intensity in the same direction of 1/683 watt per Steradian. It follows that the spectral luminous efficacy for monochromatic radiation of frequency of 540 x 1012 hertz is exactly 683 lumens per watt, K = 683 lm/W = 683 cd sr/W.

Derived Units: Derived units are the units formed by combining Base Units based on the algebraic

relations linking to the Base Units. The dimensions of the Derived quantities are written as products of powers of the dimensions of the Base quantities using the equations that relate the Derived quantities to the Base quantities.

Nautical Mile: A Nautical Mile or Sea Mile is the distance on the earth’s surface at the sea level and

corresponds to approximately one minute of arc (1/60 of a degree) of longitude on the equator of the earth.

Knot: Knot is a unit of speed of a ship or travel of a ship per hour and is equal to one U.K. Nautical

is a speed of vessel travelling at 1 knot along a meridian travels one minute of geographic latitude in one hour.

Parsec: The parsec (pc) is a unit of length used in astronomy. It is about 3.26 light-years, or just

under 31 trillion (3.1×1013) kilometres or about 19 trillion miles. A parsec is the distance from the Sun to an astronomical object which has a parallax angle of one arc second and is one of the oldest methods for astronomers to calculate the distance.

Table: Derived units Base

quantity Name of Units Symbol Units

Area square meter m2 [L]2

Volume cubic meter m3 [L]3

Frequency hertz Hz 1/s

Density kilogram per cubic meter

kg/m3

Velocity meter per

second m/s [L][T]−1 Angular Velocity radian per second rad/s Acceleration meter per

second squared m/s2 Angular Acceleration radian per second squared rad/s2 [L][T]−2 Angular Acceleration radian per second squared rad/s2 [L][T]−2 Force Newton N kg · m/s2 Pressure or Stress Newton per square meter or Pascal N/m2 or Pa [M] [T] [L]−1 Kinematics Viscosity square meter per second m2/s Dynamic Viscosity Newton-second per square meter N· s/m2 Work or Energy or Quantity of heat joule J N · m Power watt W J/s Quantity of Electricity coulomb C A · s “Electric Potential volt V W/A

Difference” or “Electro Motive Force” (EMF) Electric Resistance ohm V/A magnetic Field Strength ampere per meter A/m Magneto Motive Force ampere A

Luminance candela per square meter

cd/m2

Plane Angle radian rad

Dynamic Viscosity Pascal second Pa s m–1 kg s–1 Moment of Force Newton meter N m m2 kg s–2 Surface Tension Newton per meter N/m kg s–2 Heat Capacity, Entropy joule per Kelvin J/K m2 kg s–2 K– 1 Thermal Conductivity

watt per meter Kelvin

W/(m K) m kg s–3 K–1

Energy Density

joule per cubic meter

J/m3 m–1 kg s–2

Electric Field Strength

volt per meter V/m m kg s–3 A–1

Molar Energy joule per mole J/mol m2 kg s–2 mol–1 Exposure of X – Ray and Gamma-Rays coulomb per kilogram C/kg kg–1 s A Absorbed Dose Rate

gray per second Gy/s m2 s–3

Molar Entropy,

Molar Heat Capacity

joule per mole Kelvin J/(mol K) m2 kg s–2 K– 1 mol–1 Radiant Intensity watt per steradian W/sr m4 m–2 kg s– 3

1.2 Conversion

League (UK Nautical) Nautical mile (US) Nautical mile (UK)

International Nautical mile Mile /Land Mile / Canal Mile

Cable Length Cable (UK) Furlong

Chain (Engineer) Chain (Surveyor)

Rod / Pale / Perch Fathom Yard Link (Engineer) Link (Surveyor) Span Meter Foot Inch Inch Inch Inch Inch Kilometre cm Foot Meter Yard Meter Micro-meter Mil Area 1 sq. cm 1 sq. in 1 sq. m 1 sq. yard 1 acre 1 sq. Mile Volume 1 in3 1 ft3 1 fluid oz

1 Gallon 1 Litter 1 American Gallon 1 Imperial Gallon 1 American Barrel 1 Pint 1 quart 1 Kilo litter

1 Gram-molecule (a gas at 0 c and 760 mm of mercury pressure) volume

Mass / Weight 1 Ton (metric)

1 Ton (British) 1 Pound (lb) 1 Kg 1 Tola 1 Gram 1 Ounce 1 Metric carat 1 Troy Ounce 1 Troy ounce 1 slug Pressure 1 ATM

/ Stress 1 bar 1 Kg / cm2 1 lbf / in2 _(psi) 1 tore (mm Hg. at 00c) 1 lb. / ft2 1 lb. / ft2 1 lb / ft2 1 Pa (Pascal) 1 N / mm2 1 N / mm2 1 in. Hg at 320 F 1 ton / in2 1 kg / mm2 1 ksi 1 lb/in2 _(psi) 1 MN / m2 Power 1 W / in2 1 Watt 1 Btu / s 1 Btu / min. 1 Btu / h 1 erg / s 1 ft. lbf / s 1 ft. lbf / min 1 ft. lbf / h 1 hp 1 hp (Metric)

1 hp (electric)

1 watt

(w)

1 Horse Power (Boiler) 1 ton (Refrigeration) Angle 1 Degree Torque 1 lbf-in. 1 lbf-ft. Bending Moment 1 kgf-m 1 ozf-in. 1 lb. in / in. 1 lbf. ft / in Current Density 1 A / in. 2 1 A / in. 2 1 A / ft2 Electricity 1 gauss 1 ohm-cm 1 Oersted Magnetism 1 mho

Specific Heat 1 Btu / lb. 0_F

1 cal / g. 0_C Temperature 1 0_C 1 0_F 1 0_R Thermal Conductivity 1 Btu / ft2_{. s.} 0_F 1 Btu / ft2_{. h.} 0_F 1 Cal / cm2_{. s.} 0_C Thermal Expansion 1 in / in. 0_C 1 in / in. 0_F Energy (Impact) 1 lb.ft. 1 Btu 1 kW. h

1 Cal 1 W.h Flow Rate 1 Ft.3/h 1 ft3/min 1 gal. /h 1 gal. /min 1 ft3 / min 1 ft3 / s 1 in3 / min Force 1 lbf 1 kip 1 kip 1 tonf 1 kgf

Force per unit length 1 lbf / ft 1 lbf / in Fracture Toughness 1 Ksi / in Heat content 1 Btu / lb 1 Cal / g Velocity 1 ft / h 1 ft / m 1 ft /s 1 km / h 1 mph Velocity of Rotation 1 rev / m (rpm) 1 rev / s Viscosity 1 poise 1 stokes 1 ft2/s 1 in2/s Heat Input 1 J / in 1 KJ / in Capacity (Crude Oil) 1 ton/year 1 Barrel/day

of an inch are given rather than as fraction or gage. When gauge numbers is given for a wire without reference to a system, it means that it is Birmingham Wire Gauge (BWG). Birmingham Wire Gauge is also known as Stubs' Wire Gauge, used for drill rod and tool steel wire.

BI RMI NGHAM WI RE GAUGE (BWG) / STUBS’ WI RE GAUGE (SWG)

SWG Dimension (mm) SWG Dimension (mm) 00000 (5/0) 12.70 16 1.63 0000 (4/0) 11.53 17 1.42 000 (3/0) 10.80 18 1.22 00 (2/0) 9.65 19 1.02 0 8.64 20 0.914 1 7.65 21 0.813 2 7.01 22 0.711 3 6.40 24 0.559 4 5.89 26 0.457 5 5.39 27 0.406 6 4.88 28 0.356 7 4.47 29 0.330 8 4.06 30 0.305 9 3.66 31 0.254 10 3.25 32 0.229 11 2.95 33 0.203 12 2.64 34 0.178 13 2.34 35 0.127 14 2.03 36 0.102 15 1.83 --

--LI GHT TRAVEL TI ME FOR A PARTI CULAR DI STANCE

Distance Time

one foot 1.0 ns (Nanosecond)

one meter 3.3 ns (Nanosecond)

one kilometre 3.3 μs (Microsecond)

one statute mile 5.4 μs (Microsecond) Geostationary orbit to Earth 119 ms (Millisecond)

Moon to Earth 1.3 s (Second)

Sun to Earth (1 AU) 8.3 min (Minute) Proximal Centauri to Earth 4.24 years

Alpha Centauri to Earth 4.37 years Nearest Galaxy to Earth 25,000 years

Across the Milky Way 100,000 years Andromeda Galaxy to Earth 2.5 million years Furthest Observed Galaxy to

Earth

1.3 Physics

Physics is a natural science, which studies the matter, its motion and behaviour of the universe through space, time and all related concepts including energy and force and is represented by, E =

mc2

N

EWTON

’

S

T

HREE

L

AW

OF

M

OTION

i) Newton’s of First Law Motion: Everybody continues in a state of rest or of uniform

motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by a force imposed on the body. The First Law of Motion helps us to define a force.

ii) Newton’s Second Law of Motion: The acceleration of a given particle is

proportional to the imposed force and takes place in the direction of the straight line in which the force is impressed. This law helps us to measure a force quantitatively. F = ma

iii) Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Every action has equal and opposite reaction. This

means that the force of action and reaction between two bodies are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

Energy: Energy is the ability to do the work on other physical systems. Energy is always equivalent

to the ability to exert pulls or pushes against the basic forces of nature along a path of a certain length.

Work: Work is force acting through a distance.

Force: Force is the pull or push that causes a free body to undergo a change in speed, a change in

direction, or a change in shape and causes an object with mass to change its velocity or to move from a state of rest, to accelerate, or to deform the flexible object. A force is a vector quantity and has both magnitude and direction.

Power: Power is the rate at which work is performed or energy is converted. It is the average amount

of work done or energy converted per unit of time. If ΔW is the amount of work performed during a period of time of duration DT, the average power P_avg over that period is given by the formula:

In the case of constant power P, the amount of work performed during a period of duration T is given by:

Units of Power: The dimension of power is energy divided by time. The unit of power is the watt

(W), which is equal to one joule per second.

Horsepower: Horsepower (HP) is the name of units of measurement of power. Horsepower was

originally defined to compare the output of steam engines draft horses power.

Where, F is force, Δd is the displacement of the object.

The work is equal to the force acting on an object times its displacement. A force in the same direction as motion produces positive work, and a force in an opposing direction of motion provides negative work, while motion perpendicular to the force yields zero work. The power output of an engine is equal to the force it exerts multiplied by its velocity. In rotational systems, power is related to the torque (τ) and angular velocity (ω):

or

In systems with fluid flow, power is related to pressure, p and volumetric flow rate, Q:

Where, p is pressure (in Pascal, or N/m2 _{in SI units), Q is volumetric flow rate (in m}3_{/s in SI units)} Gravity: An initially stationary object which is allowed to fall freely under gravity drops a distance

which is proportional to the square of the elapsed time. Example: An image, during the first 1/20th of a second, will drop one unit of distance (12 mm); during 2/20 of a second, it will drop 4 units (48 mm) and during 3/20 of a second, it will drop 9 units (108 mm) and so on. The force of gravity on an object at the Earth's surface is directly proportional to the object's mass. An object that has a mass of m will experience a force:

In free-fall, this force is unopposed and therefore the net force on the object is its weight. For objects not in free-fall, the force of gravity is opposed by the reactions of their supports.

Newton’s Law of Gravitation: Two particles are attracted towards each other along the line

connecting them with a force whose magnitude is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Such as,

Where, r is the distance between two Masses; F is the force between the masses, G is the gravitational constant, m₁ is the first mass, m₂ is the second mass

Assuming SI units, F is measured in Newton’s (N), m₁ and m₂ in kilograms (kg), r in meters (m), and the constant G is approximately equal to 6.674×10−11 N m2 _kg−2_.

Centrifugal Force: Centrifugal Force acting on a concentrated mass = F,

F = (W v2_{) / (g R) lb or F = (W R n}2_{)/ (2936) lb}

Where, v = velocity on curve in feet per second. R = Radius of curvature in feet and W = Mass of the body and n = Revolution per minute

Parallelogram Law of Force: If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and

direction by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through their point of intersection represent the resultant in both magnitude and direction.

Triangle Law of Force: If a triangle with its adjacent sides equal and parallel to the forces P and Q

is drawn, (head to tail) to a suitable scale, the closing side of the triangle taken in opposite direction represents the resultant R in magnitude and direction.

Principle of Transmissibility of a Force: The condition of equilibrium or of motion of rigid body

will remain unchanged if the point of application of a force acing on the rigid body is transmitted to act at any other point along its line of action.

Rectangular Components of a Force:Any force (F) can be resolved into two rectangular

components along the X-axis and the Y-axis, if it makes an angle of degree with the X-axis, then, Fx = the component of force (F) in direction of X-axis = F Cos

Fy = the component of force (F) in direction of Y-axis = F Sin .

Equilibrium: Equilibrium occurs when the resultant force acting on a point particle is zero. In other

word, the vector sum of all forces is zero. There are two kinds of equilibrium, such as, Static equilibrium and Dynamic equilibrium.

Static equilibrium: Objects which are at rest have zero net force acting on them. The simplest case of

static equilibrium occurs when two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Example: An object on a level surface is pulled (attracted) downward toward the centre of the Earth by the force of gravity. At the same time, surface forces resist the downward force with equal upward force. The situation is one of zero net force and no acceleration.

Dynamic equilibrium: The study of the causes of motion and changes in motion is dynamics. In other

words, the study of forces and motion is dynamics.

Special relativity: In the special theory of relativity mass and energy are equivalent as can be seen

by calculating the work required to accelerate an object. It thus requires more force to accelerate it the same amount than it did at a lower velocity.

Light: Light is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye and is responsible for the

sense of sight. Light has wavelength in a range from about 380 nanometres to about 740 nm, with a frequency range of about 405 THz to 790 THz. In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible. Primary properties of light are intensity, propagation direction, frequency or wavelength spectrum, and polarisation and its speed in a vacuum is 299,792,458 metres per second (about 300,000 kilometres per second) and is one of the fundamental constants of nature. Light, which is emitted and absorbed in tiny "packets" is called photons, exhibits properties of both waves and particles. This property is referred to as the wave– particle duality. The study of light is known as optics. Speed of light: The speed of light in a vacuum is defined to be exactly 299,792,458 m/s (approximately 186,282 miles per second).

Refractive Index: The refractive index of a substance is a measure of the speed of light in that

substance. It is expressed as a ratio of the speed of light in vacuum relative to that in the considered medium. The velocity at which light travels in vacuum is a physical constant, and is the fastest speed at which energy or information can be transferred. However, light travels slower through any given material. Mathematical description of the refractive index is as follows: n = c / v = velocity of light in a vacuum / velocity of light in medium. The Refractive Index of water is 1.33. This means that light travels in a vacuum is 1.33 times as fast as it does in water. The Refractive Index of glass is around

1.5, meaning that light in glass travels at c / 1.5 = 200,000 km/s; the refractive index of air for visible light is about 1.0003. The light we see from stars left them many years ago.

Electricity: Electricity is a phenomena resulting from flow of electric charge. These include many

phenomena, such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in electrical wires, the electromagnetic field and electromagnetic induction. Lightning is one of the most dramatic effects of electricity. “Electricity" refers to a number of physical effects and precise termed as:

Ohm’s Law: When an electric potential V is applied across a material, a current of magnitude I

flows. In most metals, at low values of V, the current is proportional to V, according to Ohm's law: I = V/R

Where, R is the electrical resistance. R depends on the intrinsic Resistivity r of the material and on the geometry (length l and area A through which the current passes). R = r l / A

Electrical Resistivity: Electrical resistivity is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the

flow of electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the movement of electric charge. The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm metre (Ωm). It is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho).

Electrical conductivity: Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal quantity,

and measures a material's ability to conduct an electric current. It is commonly represented by the Greek letter σ (sigma), but κ (in electrical engineering).

Table 1: Electrical Properties of Materials Electrical Properties of Materials

Material Resistivity ρ [Ω·m] at 20 °C Conductivity σ [S/m] at 20 °C Temperature coefficient [K−1_] Air 1.3×10 16 _to 3.3×1016 3 to 8 × 10 −15 --Aluminium 2.82×10-8 _3.5×107 _0.0039 Carbon 5×10-4 _{to 8×10}-4 _{1.25 to 2×10}3 _−0.0005 Carbon (diamond) 1×10 12 _~10-13 --Carbon (graphite) 2.5e×10-6 _to 5.0×10-6 2 to 3×10 5 --Copper 1.68×10-8 _5.96×107 _0.0039 Drinking water 2×10 1 _{to 2×10}3 _5×10-4 _{to 5×10}-2 --Glass 10×10 10 _to 10×1014 10 -11 _{to 10}-15 --Gold 2.44×10-8 _4.10×107 _0.0034 Hard rubber 1×1013 ₁₀-14 --Iron 1.0×10-7 _1.00×107 _0.005 Lead 2.2×10-7 _4.55×106 _0.0039

Mercury _9.8×10-7 _1.02×106 _0.0009 Nickel 6.99×10-8 _1.43×107 _0.006 PET 10×1020 ₁₀-21 --Quartz (fused) 7.5×10 17 _1.3×10-18 --Sea water 2×10-1 _4.8 --Silicon 6.40×102 _1.56×10-3 _−0.075 Stainless steel 6.897×10 -7 _1.450×106 Teflon 10×10 22 _to 10×1024 10 -25 _{to 10}-23 --Zinc 5.90×10-8 _1.69×107 _0.0037

Electric current: A movement or flow of electrically charge is known as an electric current, the

intensity of which is usually measured in amperes. Current can consist of any moving charged particles; most commonly these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes a current. Ampere is the unit of current, which is defined as that constant current, which, if maintained in each of the two infinitely long straight parallel wires of negligible cross-section placed 1 metre apart, in vacuum, which produce between the wires a force of 2x10-7 Newton per Mitre length., typically measured in amperes.

Electric field: An influence produced by an electric charge on other charges in its vicinity.

Electrical power: Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric

circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt. The instantaneous electrical power P delivered to a component is given by;

Where, P (t) is the instantaneous power, measured in watts (joules per second); V(t) is the potential difference (or voltage drop) across the component, measured in volts; I(t) is the current through it, measured in amperes.

Magnetic Field: The magnetic field is the magnetic force on an electric current at any point in space.

In this case, the magnitude of the magnetic field is determined to be

,

Where, I is the magnitude of the hypothetical test current and is the length of hypothetical wire through which the test current flows.

Heat: Heat is one of the fundamental processes of energy transfer from a high-temperature system to

a lower-temperature system due to difference in temperature between the physical entities.

Latent heat: Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed by a thermodynamic system during a change

of state that occurs without a change in temperature. Such a process may be a phase transition, such as, the melting of ice or the boiling of water.

Specific heat: Specific heat is the amount of energy that has to be transferred to or from one unit of

mass (kilogram) or amount of substance (mole) to change the system temperature by one degree. Specific heat is a physical property, which means that it depends on the substance under consideration and its state as specified by its properties.

Entropy: Entropy is defined as quantities to facilitate the quantification and measurement of heat

flow through a thermodynamic boundary.

Temperature: The Units of Temperature includes Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin and Rankin.

Temperature (thermodynamic temperature) is a measure of the average kinetic energy of systems particles. Temperature is the degree of "hotness" or "coldness", a measure of the heat intensity. When two objects of different temperatures are in contact, the warmer object becomes colder while the colder object becomes warmer. It means that heat flows from the warmer object to the colder one. A thermometer can help us determine how cold or how hot a substance is. Temperatures are measured and reported in degrees Celsius (0_{C) or degrees Fahrenheit (}0_{F), Kelvin (K) and Degree Rankin (R).}

The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales of the temperature at which ice melts or water freezes and the temperature, at which water boils, are used as reference points. On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is defined as 0 0_{C, and the boiling point of water is defined as 100} 0_{C. On the}

Fahrenheit scale, the water freezes at 32 0_{F and the water boils at 212} 0_{F. On the Celsius scale there}

are 100 degrees between freezing point and boiling point of water, compared to 180 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. This means that 1 0_{C = 1.8} 0_{F. Thus the following formulas are used to convert}

temperature between the two scales: t 0_{F = 1.8 t} 0_{C + 32 = 9/5 t} 0_{C + 32 and T} 0_{C = 0.56 (t} 0_{F - 32) =}

5/9 (t 0_{F - 32). Where, t} 0_{C = temperature (}0_{C) and t} 0_{F = temperature (}0_F).

Kelvin (K):. On the Kelvin or the Absolute Temperature Scale the coldest temperature possible is

-273 0_{C, and has a value of 0 Kelvin (0 K) and is called the absolute zero. Units on the Kelvin scale}

are called Kelvin's (K) and no degree symbol is used.

There are no lower temperatures than 0 K on the Kelvin or the Absolute Temperature Scale. The Kelvin scale does not have negative numbers. A Kelvin equal in size to a Celsius unit, such as 1 K = 1 0_{C. To calculate a Kelvin temperature, add 273 to the Celsius temperature: t K = t} 0_{C + 273.16.}

Example: 37 0_{C = 37 + 273.16 = 310.16 K.}

Rankin (R): In the English system the absolute temperature is in degrees Rankin (R), not in

Fahrenheit. t R = t F + 459.67. Example: 37 0_{F = 37 + 459.67 = 496.67 R.}

Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity, k, is the property of a material's ability to conduct heat.

Heat transfer across materials of high thermal conductivity occurs at a faster rate than across materials of low thermal conductivity. Materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation. Thermal conductivity of materials is temperature dependent. In general, materials become more conductive to heat as the average temperature increases. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is thermal resistance.

Units of thermal conductivity:In the International System of Units (SI), thermal conductivity is

measured in watts per meter Kelvin {W/(m·K)}. In the imperial system of measurement thermal conductivity is measured in Btu/(hr·ft ⋅ F). Where 1 Btu/(hr·ft ⋅ F) = 1.730735 W/(m·K). This is a list of approximate values of thermal conductivity, k, for some common materials.

Table 2: Thermal conductivity of Materials

Material Thermal conductivity

[W/(m·K)] Air 0.025 Wood 0.04 - 0.4 Rubber 0.16 Cement, Portland 0.29 Epoxy (silica-filled) 0.30 Water (liquid) 0.6 Thermal grease 0.7 - 3 Thermal epoxy 1 - 7 Glass 1.1 Soil 1.5 Concrete, stone 1.7 Ice 2 Sandstone 2.4 Mercury 8.3 Stainless steel 12.11 ~ 45.0 Lead 35.3

Aluminium 237 (pure) 120—180 (alloys)

Gold 318

Copper 401

Silver 429

Diamond 900 - 2320

Thermal Resistance: The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is thermal resistance, usually measured

in Kelvin-meters per watt (K·m·W−1_).

Sound: A sound is produced when the membrane of the sounding instrument vibrates. Sound is a

mechanical wave that is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas, composed of frequencies within the range of hearing and of a level sufficiently strong to be heard, or the sensation stimulated in organs of hearing by such vibrations.

Propagation of sound: Sound is a sequence of waves of pressure that propagates through

compressible media such as air or water. (Sound can propagate through solids as well, but there are additional modes of propagation). During propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or attenuated by the medium.

Speed of sound: The speed of sound depends on the medium the waves pass through, and is a

fundamental property of the material. In general, the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the ratio of the elastic modulus (stiffness) of the medium to its density. Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient conditions. Example: The speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In 20 °C (68 °F) air at the sea level, the speed of sound is approximately 343 m/s (1,230 km/h; 767 mph) using the formula "v = (331 + 0.6 T) m/s". In fresh water, also at 20

°C, the speed of sound is approximately 1,482 m/s (5,335 km/h; 3,315 mph). In steel, the speed of sound is about 5,960 m/s (21,460 km/h; 13,330 mph).

Acoustics: Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical

waves in gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. The application of acoustics is the audio and noise control industries.

Noise: Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. Noise is an undesirable component

that obscures a wanted signal.

Sound pressure level: Sound pressure level is the difference, in a given medium, between average

local pressure and the pressure in the sound wave. Example: 1 Pa RMS sound pressure (94 dBSPL) in atmospheric air implies that the actual pressure in the sound wave oscillates between (1 atm Pa) and (1 atm Pa), that is between 101323.6 and 101326.4 Pa.

Sound frequency: An audio (Sound) frequency (abbreviation: AF) or audible frequency is

characterized as a periodic vibration whose frequency is audible to the average human. It is the property of sound that most determines pitch and is measured in hertz (Hz). The generally accepted standard range of audible frequencies is 20 to 20,000 Hz,

Table 3: Sound Characteristic

Frequency (Hz) Octave Description

16 to 32 1st human feeling level

32 to 512 2nd to 5th Rhythm frequencies 512 to 2048 6th to 7th Low speech 2048 to 8192 8th to 9th good speech 8192 to 16384 10th sounds of bells, ringing of cymbals, high speech

Table 4: Sound Characteristic

Symbol Units Meaning

p Pascal's RMS sound pressure f hertz frequency ξ m, metres particle displacement c m/s speed of sound v m/s particle velocity ρ kg/m3 density of air I W/m² sound intensity

Sound intensity: The term "intensity" is used exclusively for the measurement of sound in watts per

unit area. Sound intensity or acoustic intensity (I) is defined as the sound power Pac per unit area A. The usual context is the noise measurement of sound intensity in the air at a listener's location.

Acoustic intensity: The intensity is the product of the sound pressure and the particle velocity,

; Notice that both v and I are Vectors, which means that both have a direction as well as a magnitude.

Elasticity: Elasticity is the physical property of a material due to which it returns to its original shape

after the stress or external forces is removed.

Stress: Stress is the measures of the average force per unit area of a surface on which internal forces

act.

Yield Strength: The yield strength of a material is the stress at which a material begins to deform

plastically.

Stress–strain curve: The stress–strain curve is a graphical representation of the relationship

between stress and strain, by measuring the deformation of the sample, i.e. elongation, compression, or distortion.

Young's modulus: The slope of the stress-strain curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. The

tangent modulus of the initial, linear portion of a stress-strain curve is called Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus. It is defined as the ratio of the unit-axial stress over the unit-axial strain in the range of stress in which Hooke's Law holds. It is a measure of the stiffness of an elastic material

Young's modulus Units: Young's modulus is the ratio of stress to strain and so Young's modulus has

units of pressure.

(Stress (σ) is shown as a function of strain (ε). 1= True elastic limit; 2= Proportionality limit; 3= Elastic limit and 4= Offset yield strength.)

Hooke's law: Hooke's law of elasticity states that the extension of a spring is in direct proportion

with the load applied to it as long as the load does not exceed the material's elastic limit. Mathematically, Hooke's law states that:

Where, x is the displacement of the spring; F is the restoring force exerted; and k is a constant called the rate or spring constant.

Strain: The relative amount of deformation is called the strain.

Physical Properties of Materials: Properties of common solid materials are divided into following

categories: (1) Physical Properties, such as, density, melting and boiling temperature; (2) Mechanical Properties, such as, elastic modulus, shear modulus, poison's ratio, and mechanical strength, i.e., yielding stress, ultimate stress, elongation; (3) Thermal Properties, such as, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity; (4) Electric Properties, such as, electric resistivity and conductivity; and (5) Acoustic Properties, such as, compression wave velocity, shear wave velocity, bar velocity. Properties are given at 1 atm (1.01325×105 Pa; 760 mmHg; 14.6959 psi) and at room temperature 25 ºC (77 ºF) unless specified otherwise.

Table 5: Physical Properties of Solid Materials Material (Solid) Density (×1000 kg/m3) Melting Point (ºC) Boiling Point (ºC) Aluminium [Al] 2.71 660.3 2519 Brass 8.4 - 8.75 930.0 -Carbon [C] 2.25 4492 3642 Copper [Cu] 8.94 1085 2562 Copper Alloy 8.23 925.0 -Iron [Fe] 7.87 1538 2861 Iron (Cast) 7 - 7.4 - -Iron (Wrought) 7.4 - 7.8 - -Lead [Pb] 11.3 327.5 1749 Magnesium [Mg] 1.74 650.0 1090 Magnesium Alloy 1.77 1246 2061

Monel (67% Ni, 30% Cu) 8.84 1330

-Nickel [Ni] 8.89 1455 2913 Nylon; Polyamide 1.1 - -Rubber 0.96 - 1.3 - -Silicon [Si] 2.33 1382 -Steel 7.85 1425 -Titanium [Ti] 4.54 1668 3287 Titanium Alloy 4.51 - -Tungsten [W] 19.3 3422 5555 Zinc [Zn] 7.14 419.5 907.0 Mercury [Hg] (20 ºC) 13.57904 -38.83 356.7 Water; Distilled [H₂O] (20 ºC) 0.998 0 100.0 Water; Sea (13 ºC) 1.024 - -Air (25 ºC, dry) 0.001184 - -Argon [Ar] (0 ºC) 0.001784 -189.3 -185.8 Carbon Dioxide [CO₂] (0

-Helium [He] (0 ºC) 0.0001785 - -268.9 Hydrogen [H₂] (0 ºC) 8.99 -259.3 -252.9 Nitrogen [N₂] (0 ºC) 0.00125 -210.0 -195.8 Oxygen [O₂] (0 ºC) 0.001429 -218.8 -182.9 Water; Steam [H₂O] (100 ºC) 0.6 -

-Table 6: Mechanical Properties of Solid Materials Material (Solid) Elastic Modulus (GPa) Shear Modulus (GPa) Poisson's Ratio Aluminium Alloy 70 - 79 26 - 30 0.33 Brass 96 - 110 36 - 41 0.34 Carbon [C] 6.9 - -Copper Alloy 120 47 -Iron (Cast) 83 - 170 32 - 69 0.2 - 0.3 Iron (Wrought) 190 75 0.3 Magnesium [Mg] 41 15 0.35 Monel (67% Ni, 30% Cu) 170 66 0.32 Nickel [Ni] 210 80 0.31 Rubber 7.0 × 10-4 - 4.0 × 10 -3 2.0 × 10-4 -1.0 × 10-3 0.45 - 0.5 Titanium [Ti] 110 40 - 40 0.33 Zinc [Zn] - - 0.25

Table 7: Mechanical Properties of Solid Materials Material (Solid) Yield Stress (MPa) Ultimate Stress (MPa) Elongation (%) Aluminium [Al] 20 70 60 Aluminium Alloy 35 - 500 100 - 550 1 - 45 Brass 70 - 550 200 - 620 4 - 60 Brass 170 - 410 410 - 590 15 - 50

Brass; Red (80% Cu,

20% Zn) 90 - 470 300 - 590 4 - 50

Bronze; Regular 82 - 690 200 - 830 5 - 60 Copper [Cu] 55 - 330 230 - 380 10 - 50

Copper Alloy 760 830 4

Iron (Wrought) 210 340 35 Magnesium [Mg] 20 - 70 100 - 170 5 - 15 Magnesium Alloy 80 - 280 140 - 340 2 - 20 Monel (67% Ni, 30% Cu) 170 -1100 450 - 1200 2 - 50 Nickel [Ni] 140 - 620 310 - 760 2 - 50 Rubber 1.0 - 7.0 7.0 - 20 100 - 800 Titanium [Ti] - 500 25 Titanium Alloy - 900 - 970 10 Tungsten [W] - 1400 -4000 0 - 4

Table 8: Properties of Solid Materials

Material Thermal Conductivity (W/m C) Density (kg/m^3) Elastic Modulus (Pa) Heat capacity (J/kg C) Poisson's ratio Aluminium 2024-T3 190.40 2770 7.310E+10 963.00 0.3300 Aluminium 6061-T6 155.80 2700 7.310E+10 963.00 0.3300 Aluminium 7079-T6 121.10 2740 7.172E+10 963.00 0.3300 Copper - pure 392.90 8900 385.00 Iron 83.50 7830 440.00 MagnesiumHK31-24 114.20 1790 4.414E+10 544.0 0.3500 MagnesiumAZ31-24 95.19 1770 1047 0.3500

Molybdenum 143.60 1.030E+04 2.759E+11 293.0 0.3200

Nickel 91.73 8900 2.207E+11

PTFE 0.2400 1200 2453

Silver 417.10 1.050E+04 7.241E+10 235.0 0.3700

Steel AISI304 16.27 8030 1.931E+11 503.0 0.2900

Steel AISIC1020 46.73 7850 2.034E+11 419.0 0.2900

Tantalum 53.65 1.660E+04 1.862E+11 126.0 0.3500

Titanium

B120VCA 7.4420 4850 1.021E+11 544.0 0.3000

Tungsten 164.40 1.930E+04 3.448E+11 138.0 0.2800

Table 9: Acoustic Properties of Solid Materials Material

Longitudinal

(Solid) Velocity (m/s)

(m/s) (m/s)

Aluminium [Al] (Rolled) 6420 3040 5000

Brass 4700 2110 3480

Brick - - 3650

Copper [Cu] (Annealed/Rolled) 4760 / 5010 2325 / 2270 3810 / 3750 Cork - - 500.0 Lead [Pb] (Annealed/Rolled) 2160 / 1960 700.0 / 690.0 1190 / 1210 Nylon; Polyamide 2620 1070 1800 Rubber 1550 - 1830 - -Steel 5960 3235 5200 Stone; Marble - - 3810 Tin [Sn] 3320 1670 2730 Wood; Ash - - 4670 / 1260 Wood; Oak - - 3850

Table 10: Mechanical Properties of Liquid & Gas Materials Material Bulk Modulus (GPa) Viscosity (Pa-s) Kinematic Viscosity (m2_/s) Acetone [C₃H₆O] (20 ºC) - 0.389 × 10-3

-Alcohol; Ethanol [C₂H₅OH] (20

ºC) 0.823 1.77 × 10

-3 _{2.20 × 10}-6

Alcohol; Methanol [CH₃OH] (20

ºC) 0.902 0.817 × 10 -3 _{1.01 × 10}-6 Mercury [Hg] (20 ºC) 25.3 1.55 × 10-3 _{0.114 ×10}-6 Oil; Lubricating (20 ºC) - 799 × 10-3 _{900 × 10}-6 Water; Distilled [H₂O] (20 ºC) 2.18 1.00 × 10-3 _{1.00 × 10}-6 Water; Distilled [H₂O] (25 ºC) - 1.57 × 10-3 _{1.57 × 10}-6 Water; Distilled [H₂O] (4 ºC) 2.28 - -Water; Sea (13 ºC) - 0.017 × 10-3 13.3 × 10-6 Air (0 ºC, dry) - 0.0179 × 10-3 _{14.6 × 10}-6

Carbon Dioxide [CO₂] (0 ºC) - 0.0138 × 10-3

-Helium [He] (0 ºC) - 0.0186 × 10-3

-Hydrogen [H₂] (0 ºC) - 0.0084 × 10-3

-Nitrogen [N₂] (0 ºC) - 0.0166 × 10-3

-Table 11: Physical Properties of Liquid Materials Material (Liquid) Density (×1000 kg/m3) Melting Point (ºC) Boiling Point (ºC) Acetone [C₃H₆O] (20 ºC) 0.7899 -94.85 56.05 Alcohol; Ethanol [C₂H₅OH]

(20 ºC) 0.789 -114.2 78.29

Alcohol; Methanol [CH₃OH] (20

ºC) 0.792 -97.68 64.55 Mercury [Hg] (20 ºC) 13.57904 -38.83 356.7 Oil; Mineral 0.92 - -Oil; Olive 0.92 -6.00 -Oil; Petroleum 0.82 - -Water; Distilled [H₂O] (20 ºC) 0.998 0 100.0 Water; Distilled [H₂O] (25 ºC) 0.997 0 100.0 Water; Distilled [H₂O] (4 ºC) 1 0 100.0 Water; Sea (13 ºC) 1.024 -

-Table 12: Thermal Properties of Liquid

Material Thermal Expansion Coefficient (×10-6_/ºC) Thermal Conductivity (W/m·K) Acetone [C₃H₆O] (20 ºC) - 0.161

Alcohol; Ethanol [C₂H₅OH] (20

ºC) - 0.169

Alcohol; Methanol [CH₃OH] (20

ºC) - 0.200

Mercury [Hg] (20 ºC) 182 8.25

Water; Distilled [H₂O] (20 ºC) 207 -Water; Distilled [H₂O] (25 ºC) - 0.607

Altitude and Air Pressure & Specific Volume Correction Factors: The air pressure varies with

altitude. The specific volume of standard air at a certain altitude can be calculated by multiplying with the volume correction factor below:

Table 13: Altitude and Air Pressure & Specific Volume Altitude (Meter) Air Pressure (psia) Volume Correction Factor Altitude (Meter) Air Pressure (psia) Volume Correction Factor

0 14.7 1.00 4000 8.92 --500 13.74 1.06 5000 7.83 --1000 13.29 1.11 6000 6.82 --1500 12.12 1.19 7000 5.96 --2000 11.52 1.25 8000 5.17 --3000 10.15 -- 9000 4.46

--Air: Air is a mixture of gases, such as 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen with traces of water vapour,

carbon dioxide, argon, and various other components as given in Table:

Table 14: Properties of Air

Gas Ratio (%) (Volume) Molecular Mass (kg/kmol) Chemical Symbol Oxygen 20.95 23.20 O₂ Nitrogen 78.09 75.47 N₂ Carbon Dioxide 0.03 0.046 CO₂ Hydrogen 0.00005 ~ 0 H₂ Argon 0.933 1.28 Ar Neon 0.0018 0.0012 Ne Helium 0.0005 0.00007 He Krypton 0.0001 0.0003 Kr Xenon 9 10-6 0.00004 Xe

Table 15: Physical Constants in SI units

Quantity Symbol Value (SI Unit)

Bohr magnetron 9.274 009 68 × 10 −24 _J·T−1 Bohr radius 5.291 772 1092 × 10−11 _m characteristic impedance of vacuum 376.730 313 461... Ω classical electron radius 2.817 940 3267 × 10−15 _m conductance quantum 7.748 091 7346 × 10 −5 _S Coulomb's constant 8.987 551 787... × 109 N·m²·C−2 electric constant

(vacuum permittivity) 8.854 187 817... × 10−12 _F·m−1 electron mass 9.109 382 91 × 10 −31 _kg elementary charge 1.602 176 565 × 10 −19 _C Fermi coupling constant 1.166 364 × 10−5 _GeV−2 Harte energy 4.359 744 34 × 10−18 _J inverse conductance quantum 12 906.403 7217 Ω Josephson constant 4.835 978 70 × 10 14 _Hz·V−1 magnetic constant (vacuum permeability) 4π × 10−7 _N·A−2 _{= 1.256 637} 061... × 10−6 _N·A−2 magnetic flux quantum 2.067 833 758 × 10 −15 _Wb Newtonian constant of gravitation 6.67384(80)×10−11 _m3_·kg−1_·s−2 nuclear magnetron 5.050 783 53 × 10 −27 _J·T−1 Planck constant 6.626 069 57(29) × 10 −34 _J·s proton mass 1.672 621 777 × 10−27 _kg quantum of circulation 3.636 947 5520 × 10 −4 _{m² s}−1 reduced Planck constant 1.054 571 726(47) × 10−34 _J·s Rydberg constant 10 973 731.568 539 m −1 second radiation constant 1.438 7770 × 10−2 _m·K speed of light in vacuum 299 792 458 m·s −1 Stefan– Boltzmann _{5.670 373 × 10}−8 _W·m−2_·K−4

constant Thomson cross section 6.652 458 734 × 10 −29 _m² von Klitzing constant 25 812.807 4434 Ω

Table 16: Astronomical constants in SI units

Acceleration Sea level 9.8067 m/s2

Luminosity Sun 3.826E+26 J/s

Mass Sun 1.989E+30 kg

Mass Earth 5.976E+24 kg

Pressure Sea level 1.013E+05 Pa

Radius Earth 6.371E+06 m

Radius Sun 6.970E+08 m

1.4 Hydraulic engineering

Hydraulics Engineering deals with the mechanical properties of liquids or fluid at rest. Fluids exert pressure normal to any contacting surface. Fluids at rest indicate that there exists a force, known as pressure that acts upon its surroundings. This pressure is not constant throughout the body of fluid. Pressure, ‘p’, increases with an increase in depth. Where the upward force on a body acts on the base and can be found by equation: , Where h is the height of the liquid column; ρ is liquid the constant and g = specific gravity.

Archimedes Law of Buoyancy: Discovery of the principle of buoyancy is attributed to Archimedes.

When anybody of arbitrary shape is immersed, partly or fully, in a fluid, it will experience the action of a net force in the opposite direction of the local pressure gradient. If this pressure gradient arises from gravity, the net force is in the vertical direction opposite that of the gravitational force. This vertical force is termed buoyancy or buoyant force and is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the weight of the displaced fluid. Example: In the case of a ship, its weight is balanced by shear force from the displaced water allowing it to float. If more cargo is loaded onto the ship, it would sink more into the water displacing more water and thus receive a higher buoyant force to balance the increased weight.

Properties of perfect gases (Ideal gas): A perfect gas (or an ideal gas) is a state of a substance,

whose evaporation from its liquid state is complete.

Laws of perfect gas: The physical properties of a gas are controlled by the following three

variables: (i) Pressure exerted by the gas. (ii) Volume occupied by the gas. (iii) Temperature of the gas.

Avogadro's law: Avogadro's law is stated mathematically as:

Where, V is the volume of the gas. n is the amount of substance of the gas. k is proportionality constant.

Molar volume: Taking STP to be 101.325 kPa and 273.15 K, we can find the volume of one mole of

a gas:

For 100.000 kPa and 273.15 K, the molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.414 dm3 _mol-1_.

Boyle's law: Boyle’s law is relation to Kinetic Theory and Ideal Gases and states that at constant

temperature for a fixed mass, the absolute pressure and the volume of a gas are inversely proportional. The law can also be stated in a slightly different manner, that the product of absolute pressure and volume is always constant. The mathematical equation for Boyle's law is:

1

P or, P V = constant

OR;

V

Where, p denotes the pressure of the system; V denotes the volume of the gas; k is a constant value representative of the pressure and volume of the system and 1, 2, 3 refer to the different sets of conditions. Examples: The Change of Pressure in a Syringe, the popping of a Balloon, increase in size of bubbles as they rise to the surface, death of deep sea creatures due to change in pressure and popping of ears at high altitude are the examples.

Charles's law: Charles's law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of an ideal

gas increases or decreases by the same factor as its temperature on the absolute temperature scale (i.e. the gas expands as the temperature increases). This can be written as,

Where V is the volume of the gas; and T is the absolute temperature. The law can also be usefully expressed as follows:

The equation shows that as absolute temperature increases, the volume of the gas increases in proportion at a constant pressure.

Relation to the ideal gas law: French physicist Emile Clapeyron combined Charles's law with

Boyle's law to produce a single equation which would become known as the ideal gas law:

Where, t is the Celsius temperature; and p₀, V₀ and t₀ are the pressure, volume and temperature of a sample of gas under some standard state. The figure of 267 came directly from Gay-Lussac's work. The modern figure would be 273.15. For any given sample of gas, p₀ V₀ ⁄ 267+ t₀ is a constant (Clapeyron denoted this constant R, and it is closely related to the modern gas constant); if the pressure is also constant, the equation simplifies to

The thermodynamic properties of an ideal gas law are:

Where, P is the pressure; V is the volume; n is the amount of substance of the gas (in moles); R is the gas constant (8.314 J·K−1mol-1) and T is the absolute temperature

Absolute Zero: Charles's law appears to imply that the volume of a gas will descend to zero at a

certain temperature (−266.66 °C according to Gay-Lussac's figures) or -273°C.

However, the "absolute zero" on the Kelvin temperature scale was originally defined in terms of the second law of thermodynamics.

Relation to kinetic theory: Where, N is the number of molecules in the gas sample. If the pressure is

constant, the volume is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy and hence to the temperature for any given gas sample. The kinetic theory of gases relates that the temperature being

proportional to the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules. The kinetic theory

equivalent of the ideal gas law relates pV to the average kinetic energy:

iii) General Gas Equation: In order to deal with all practical cases, the Boyles’ law and

Charles’ law are combined together, which give us a general gas equation as below;

P1 V1 P2 V2 P3 V3 = = = ……. = Constant T1 T2 T3

Viscous Flow: A viscous fluid will deform continuously under a shear force, whereas an ideal fluid

doesn't deform. Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics fluid is an easily compressible, such as, gas or air, while hydraulic fluid is relatively incompressible liquid media such as water or oil. Most industrial applications of pneumatic fluid pressures are about 80 to 100 pounds per square inch (550 to 690 kPa). Hydraulics applications commonly use from 1,000 to 5,000 psi (6.9 to 34 MPa) with specialized applications up to 10,000 psi (69 MPa). Hydraulic systems use an incompressible fluid, such as oil or water, to transmit forces from one location to another within the fluid. Most aircraft use hydraulics in the braking systems and landing gear. Pneumatic systems use compressible fluid, such as air, in their operation. Some aircraft utilize pneumatic systems for their brakes, landing gear and movement of flaps.

Pascal's law: Pascal's law states that when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a confined

fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in the container. There is an increase in pressure as the length of the column of liquid increases, due to the increased mass of the fluid above. Pascal's law allows forces to be multiplied.

Affinity laws: The affinity laws are used in hydraulics and HVAC to express the relationship

between variables involved in pump or fan and turbine performance, such as, head, flow rate, shaft speed, and power. In rotary implements, the affinity laws apply both to centrifugal and axial flows. The affinity laws are useful as they allow prediction of the head discharge characteristic of a pump or fan from a known characteristic measured at a different speed or impeller diameter.

Quantity of Discharge through a pipe = Q = Cross

Section Area of Pipe x Velocity = A V, Where, V = C r S and, C = 2 g / ---(i)

= 0.01 (1+1 / 12 d) for old pipes. And, = 0.005 (1+1 / 12 d) for new pipes. ---(ii)

Where d is the inside diameter of pipe.

h _f= 4 L V2 _{/ 2 g d; Where, = 0.0056; and d = H. M. D. =Inside diameter of pipe ----(iii)}

For old pipes For new pipes

Velocity = V = 39 d S Inside Diameter = d = 0.2545 x 5 _Q2 _/g Velocity = V = 55 d S Inside Diameter = d = 0.222 x 5 _Q2 _/g

Loss of head in pipe: Head loss is calculated with,

Where, hf is the head loss due to friction (SI units: m); L is the length of the pipe (m); D is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (for a pipe of circular section, this equals the internal diameter of the pipe) (m); V is the average velocity of the fluid flow, equal to the volumetric flow rate per unit cross-sectional wetted area (m/s); g is the local acceleration due to gravity (m/s2); f is a dimensionless coefficient called the Darcy friction factor. It can be found from a Moody Diagram or more precisely by solving the Colebrook Equation.

Pressure loss: The head loss hf expresses the pressure loss Δp as the height of a column of fluid,

Where ρ is the density of the fluid, the Darcy–Weisbach equation can also be written in terms of pressure loss:

Where the pressure loss due to friction Δp (units: Pa or kg/ms2) is a function of: the ratio of the length to diameter of the pipe, L/D; the density of the fluid, ρ (kg/m3); the mean velocity of the flow, V (m/s), as defined above; a (dimensionless) coefficient of laminar, or turbulent flow, f.

Components of hydraulic head: A mass free falling from an elevation (in a vacuum) will reach a

speed,

When

Where, g is the acceleration due to gravity.

When arriving at elevation z = 0 or when we rearrange it as a head.