THE STUDY OF
THE STUDY OF LEARNERS’ APPROXIMATIVLEARNERS’ APPROXIMATIVE SYSTEMSE SYSTEMS
I. INTRODUCTION I. INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, second language acquisition can refer to the scientific study of Traditionally, second language acquisition can refer to the scientific study of the
the seconsecond-land-language learning process. It guage learning process. It means that means that seconsecond d langulanguage age acquisacquisitionition refers to what the learner does, it does not refer to
refers to what the learner does, it does not refer to what teachers dowhat teachers do. As stated by. As stated by Menyuk (1971) that study of the child-learner’s errors does indeed throw light on the Menyuk (1971) that study of the child-learner’s errors does indeed throw light on the types of the cognitive and linguistic processes that appear to be part of language types of the cognitive and linguistic processes that appear to be part of language learning process. In addition, Corner (1971) stated that in second language learning, learning process. In addition, Corner (1971) stated that in second language learning, the learner’s errors are indicative both of the state of the learner’s knowledge, and of the learner’s errors are indicative both of the state of the learner’s knowledge, and of the ways in which a second language is learned.
the ways in which a second language is learned.
According to Richard and Sampson that while current linguistic theories are According to Richard and Sampson that while current linguistic theories are more insightful than previous ones, there has not been a corresponding increase in more insightful than previous ones, there has not been a corresponding increase in the desriptive or explanatory powers of theories of second language acquisition. the desriptive or explanatory powers of theories of second language acquisition. Furthermore, they also added that the data gathered could perhaps provide corrective Furthermore, they also added that the data gathered could perhaps provide corrective feedback to general linguistic theory and to language teaching practice.
feedback to general linguistic theory and to language teaching practice.
II. THE STUDY
II. THE STUDY OF LEARNERS’ APPROXIMATIVE SYSTEMSOF LEARNERS’ APPROXIMATIVE SYSTEMS
The concept of second language acquisition and how it is to be described and The concept of second language acquisition and how it is to be described and understood is widely debated. Boaz (1889) suggested that learners perceived sounds understood is widely debated. Boaz (1889) suggested that learners perceived sounds in new languages in terms of their native language or other languages to which they in new languages in terms of their native language or other languages to which they had earlier been exposed. With the emergence of the notion of language as a system had earlier been exposed. With the emergence of the notion of language as a system ho
howevwever, er, the the quequestistion on of of secsecond languond language age acqacquisuisitiition on coucould ld be be vieviewed wed as as thethe juxtaposition of two systems.
juxtaposition of two systems.
Lado (1957) tended to emphasize points of contrast between two language Lado (1957) tended to emphasize points of contrast between two language syst
systems. Contrastems. Contrastive analysis subsequive analysis subsequently arose ently arose as a as a field of field of researcresearch. To h. To be sure,be sure, contrast between systems was understood not to be only factor involved in second contrast between systems was understood not to be only factor involved in second
Ac
Accocordrdining g to to CoCordrder er (1(196967) 7) lilingnguiuiststs s ststududy y ththe e prprococesess s of of lanlanguguagagee acquisition and the various strategies learners may use. In line with this statement, acquisition and the various strategies learners may use. In line with this statement, Strevens (1969) hypotesized that errors should not be viewed as problems to be Strevens (1969) hypotesized that errors should not be viewed as problems to be overcome, but rather as normal and inevitable features indiating the strategies that overcome, but rather as normal and inevitable features indiating the strategies that learners use.
learners use.
On the contrary, Nemser (1971) in his early work aimed at the collection and On the contrary, Nemser (1971) in his early work aimed at the collection and evaluation of relevant interference data. In line with Nemser, Briere (1968) attempted evaluation of relevant interference data. In line with Nemser, Briere (1968) attempted to test empirically the amount of interference that would ensue from competing to test empirically the amount of interference that would ensue from competing ph
phonoonologlogical ical catcategoegoriesries. . ErrErrors ors whiwhich ch did did not not fit fit sysystestematmaticalically ly intinto o the the natnativeive language or target language systems were, for the most part, ignored.
language or target language systems were, for the most part, ignored.
Current research tends to focus on the learner himself as generator of the Current research tends to focus on the learner himself as generator of the gr
gramammamar r of of hihis s sesentntenenceces s in in ththe e nenew w lalangnguauagege. . It It is is refreflelectected d in in a a grgrowowiningg ter
terminminoloology gy for a for a fiefield ld of of resresearearch ch whiwhich ch deadeals ls witwith h the the lealearnerner’s r’s attattempempts ts toto intern
internalize the alize the grammgrammar ar of the of the langulanguage age he is he is learnilearning. This ng. This terminterminology includeology includess er
erroror r ananalalysysisis, , ididioiosysyncncratratic ic didialalecectsts, , ininterterlalangnguauagege, , apapprproxoximimatiative ve sysyststemems,s, transitional competence, l’etat de dialecte.
transitional competence, l’etat de dialecte.
The small amount of research and speculation about learners’ approximative The small amount of research and speculation about learners’ approximative sy
systestems ms menmentiotion n sevseven en factfactors ors thathat t may may infinflueluence nce and and chacharactracterizerize e the the secsecondond language learner systems:
language learner systems: 1.
1. Language transferLanguage transfer.. Sen
Sententences ces in in the the targtarget et lanlanguaguage ge my my exhexhibiibit t intinterfeerferenrences ces frofrom m thethe mother tongue. Interference analysis tends to be from the deviant sentence back mother tongue. Interference analysis tends to be from the deviant sentence back to
to the mother the mother tongtongue, while ue, while contracontrastive analysis predictstive analysis predicts s errors by errors by compacomparingring the linguisti
the linguistic c systesystems of ms of the mother tongue and the mother tongue and the target langauge. As statedthe target langauge. As stated by George (1971) that one-third of the deviant sentences from second language by George (1971) that one-third of the deviant sentences from second language learners could be attribute to language transfer. However, until the role of other learners could be attribute to language transfer. However, until the role of other fac
factotors rs is is momore re unundedersrstotoodod, , it it is is nonot t popossssibible le to to evevalaluauate te ththe e amamouount nt of of systematic interference due to language transfer alone.
2.
2. Intralingual Intralingual InterfereInterferencesnces.. Ri
Richchardards s (1(197970) 0) prpropopososed ed inintrtralaliningugual al ininteterferferenrenceces s refrefer er to to ititememss produced by the learner which reflect not the structure of the mother tongue, produced by the learner which reflect not the structure of the mother tongue, b
but ut gegeneneraralilizazatitionons s babasesed d on on papartrtiaial l exexpoposusure re to to ththe e tatargrget et lalangnguauagege.. Fu
Furtrthherermmorore, e, he he fofouund nd sysyststemematatic ic inintrtralaliningugual al ererrorors rs to to ininvvoolvlvee overg
overgeneralizeneralization, ignorance ation, ignorance of of rule rule restricrestrictionstions, , incomincompete pete applicapplication ation of of rules, and semantic errors.
rules, and semantic errors.
Like first language learners, the second language learner tries to derive Like first language learners, the second language learner tries to derive the rules behind the data to which he has been exposed, and may develop the rules behind the data to which he has been exposed, and may develop hypotheses that correspond neither to the mother tongue nor target language. hypotheses that correspond neither to the mother tongue nor target language. As stated by Torrey (1966) in his experiment on learning Russian word order, As stated by Torrey (1966) in his experiment on learning Russian word order, sub
subjecjects ts somsometietimes mes adoadoptepted d a a conconsissistentent t worword d ordorder er difdiffferfferent ent frofrom m eitheither er Russian or English. In line with this experiment, Brudhiprabha (1972) on his Russian or English. In line with this experiment, Brudhiprabha (1972) on his stu
studiedies s of of ThThai ai LeaLearnerner r of of EngEnglislish, h, manmany y intintraliralingungual al erroerrors rs reprepresresent ent thethe learning difficulty of what are often low level rules in the target language.
learning difficulty of what are often low level rules in the target language. 3.
3. Sociolinguistics SituationSociolinguistics Situation..
Different settings language use result in different degrees and types of Different settings language use result in different degrees and types of language learning. Terms of the effects of the socio-cultural setting on the language learning. Terms of the effects of the socio-cultural setting on the learner’s language are different from terms of the relationship holding between learner’s language are different from terms of the relationship holding between the learner and the target language community and the respective linguistic the learner and the target language community and the respective linguistic markers of these relations and identities such as the effects of the learner’s markers of these relations and identities such as the effects of the learner’s particular motivations for learning the second language as well as the effects of particular motivations for learning the second language as well as the effects of
the socio-cultural setting. the socio-cultural setting.
Socio
Sociolingulinguistics situation leads istics situation leads to to incluinclusion of sion of the the generageneral l motivmotivationationalal variables which influence language learning. Psychologists have related the variables which influence language learning. Psychologists have related the types of language learning achieved to the role of the language in relation to types of language learning achieved to the role of the language in relation to the learner’s needs and perceptions. In focusing on the type of relationship the learner’s needs and perceptions. In focusing on the type of relationship holding between the learner and the target language community it would be holding between the learner and the target language community it would be
lan
languguagage e lealearnrnining. g. AcAccocordrdining g to to FeFergrgususon on (1(197971) 1) ththe e phphenenomomenenon on of of simplification in some language contact situations, represented by the absence simplification in some language contact situations, represented by the absence of
of ththe e cocopupulala, , rereduductiction on of of momorprphoholologigicacal l anand d ininflflectectioionanal l sysyststemem, , anandd grammatical simplification, may likewise be socially motivated.
grammatical simplification, may likewise be socially motivated.
In addition, Mackey (1962 noted that in describing interference one must In addition, Mackey (1962 noted that in describing interference one must account for variation according to medium, style, or register in which the account for variation according to medium, style, or register in which the speak
speaker er is is operatoperating. Sampson (1971) ing. Sampson (1971) suggsuggested that ested that varyinvarying g situatsituations evokeions evoke different kinds of errors in varying quantities when children are trying to use different kinds of errors in varying quantities when children are trying to use the target language.
the target language. 4.
4. ModalityModality..
The learner’s languag
The learner’s language e may vary may vary accordaccording to ing to the modality of the modality of expoexposuresure to
to the the tartarget get lanlanguaguage ge and and the the modmodalitality y of of proproducductiotion. n. VilVildomdomec ec (19(1963)63) observed that interferences between the bilingual’s languages is generally in observed that interferences between the bilingual’s languages is generally in the productive rather than in receptive side. Some of the modalities affecting the productive rather than in receptive side. Some of the modalities affecting the learner’s approximative system are auditory cues, spelling pronunciations, the learner’s approximative system are auditory cues, spelling pronunciations, and confusions of written and
and confusions of written and spoken styles.spoken styles. 5.
5. AgeAge..
Some aspects of the child’s learning capacities change as he grows older Some aspects of the child’s learning capacities change as he grows older and these may affect language learning. Lenneberg (1967) noted a period of and these may affect language learning. Lenneberg (1967) noted a period of pr
primaimary ry lanlanguaguage ge acqacquisuisitiition, on, pospostultulateated d to to be be biobiologlogicaically lly detdetermermineined,d, beginning when the child starts to walk and continuing until puberty.
beginning when the child starts to walk and continuing until puberty. In
In sosome me wayways s aduadults are lts are betbetter ter prepreparpared ed for langufor language age learlearninning g thathann children. Adults have better memories, a larger store of abstract concepts that children. Adults have better memories, a larger store of abstract concepts that can be used in learning, and a greater ability to form new concepts. Children can be used in learning, and a greater ability to form new concepts. Children however are better imitators of speech sounds. Ervin-Tripp (1970) suggested however are better imitators of speech sounds. Ervin-Tripp (1970) suggested tht adult
tht adult mothmother er tongtongue developmeue development nt is primarily in is primarily in terms of terms of vocabvocabulary. Theulary. The adult’s strategies of language learning may be more vocabulary oriented than adult’s strategies of language learning may be more vocabulary oriented than syntactic.
syntactic. 6.
It
It conconcerncerns s the the lack lack stastabilbility ity of of the the lealearnerner’s r’s appapproxroximaimativtive e syssystemtem.. Because the circumtances for individual language learning are never identical, Because the circumtances for individual language learning are never identical, the acquisition of new lexical, phonological and syntactic items varies from the acquisition of new lexical, phonological and syntactic items varies from one individual to another.
one individual to another. Since most studies of
Since most studies of seconsecond d langulanguage learners systems have dealt age learners systems have dealt withwith the
the lealearnerner’s r’s proproducductiotion n rathrather er thathan n his his comcompreprehenhensiosion n of of lanlanguaguage, ge, thethe qu
quesestition on alalso so ararisises es as as to to whwhetetheher r ththe e grgramammamar r by by whwhicich h ththe e leleararnener r un
undedersrstatandnds s spspeeceech h is is ththe e sasame me as as ththat at by by whwhich ich he he prprododucuces es spspeeceech.h. Acco
Accordirding ng to to TroTroike ike (19(1969) 69) assassumiuming ng the the lealearnerner r heahears rs and and undunderserstantandsds standard English but produses a significant number of deviant sentences, the standard English but produses a significant number of deviant sentences, the distinction between his receptive competence
distinction between his receptive competence (the rules he understands) and his(the rules he understands) and his productive competence (the rules he uses) may be useful.
productive competence (the rules he uses) may be useful. Ev
Evididenence ce frfrom om eaearlrlieier r ststududieies s inindidicacatetes s ththat at mamany ny phphononolologogicicalal replacements found in the speech of second language learners are unique to the replacements found in the speech of second language learners are unique to the approximative system.
approximative system. 7.
7. Universal Hierarchy of DifficultyUniversal Hierarchy of Difficulty.. It concerns with
It concerns with the inherent difficultthe inherent difficulty y for man for man of certain of certain phonphonologiological,cal, syntactic or semantic items and structures.
syntactic or semantic items and structures.
III.
III. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LEARNER SYSTEMSTHE SIGNIFICANCE OF LEARNER SYSTEMS
The difference between first language acquisition and second language learning: The difference between first language acquisition and second language learning:
F
Fiirrsst t llaanngguuaagge e aaccqquuiissiittiioonn SeeccoS onnd d llaanngguuaagge e lleeaarrnniinngg learning of the mother tongue is the
learning of the mother tongue is the p
parart t oof f ththe e whwhoole le mmatatuuraratitioonanall process of the child
process of the child
Learning a second language normally Learning a second language normally be
begingins s onlonly y aftafter er the the matmaturaurationtionalal process
process
The learner’s errors provide evidence of the system of the language that is using at The learner’s errors provide evidence of the system of the language that is using at the particular point at the course. For the teacher, it can give information about how the particular point at the course. For the teacher, it can give information about how
