Collins on defamation

COLLINS

ON

DEFAMATION

MATTHEW COLLINS QC

BA, LLB (Hom), PhD

Barríster, Aickin Chambers, Melbourne

Senior Fellow, lhe University ofMelbourne

OXFORD

UNIVERSITY PRBSS

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OXFORD

\1NIVBRSITY PllBSS

Great Clarendon Srreer, Oxford, 0X2 6DP, United Kingdom

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CONTENTS

Tables ofCases

Tables ofStatutes

Tables ofRegulatiom and Rules

Tables ofTreaties and European Legislation

Abbrevíations

I INTRODUCTION

1. General Introduction

A. Exordium

B. Objective

C.

Origins and InAuences

D. Structure of the Law ofDefamation Elements of the cause ofaction Defences

Remedies

E. Human Rights and the European Convention

Human Rights Act

Freedom ofexpression Private and family life

Relevance to defamation actions Ultimare balancing test

F.

Defàmation Act 2013

Background The cause ofaction Defences

Other changes Commencement Statutory interpretation G. Other Sources ofLaw

Relevance Scodand Northern Ireland Austral ia Canada United States Other countries H. Strucrure of this Book

Pre-action and other preliminary considerations The cause of action for defamation

Defences

Remedies and related matters

xvii xxxv lxxvii ci cv cvii 1.01 1.05 1.09 1.14 1.14 1.16 1.19 1.20 1.20 1.25 1.28 1.30

1.33

1.35 1.35 1.39 1.41 1.48 1.53 1.58 1.62 1.62 1.64 1.66 1.67 1.73 1.76 1.77 1.78 1.78 1.79 1.80 1.87 STJ00105871

Contents

European influences Conflicr oflaws Related causes of action Appendices

2. Preliminary Considerations

A. Parries \Xi'ho Can Sue

Natural persons

Companies and trading corporarions Partnerships

Unincorporated associations Trade unions

Elected bodies and their organs

B. Parries \Xi'ho Can Be Sued

General rule

Persons other than the aurhor, editor, or publisher Persons domiciled ourside England and Wales Oeceased persons

Bankrupt persons

Children and protected parties Bodies corporate

Partnerships Trade unions

Foreign States and their representatives, etc

C. Pre-action Proroco! urrer of daím

Response to letrer of c1aim

OfIer to make amends

Proportionaliry of costS Alternative dispute resoludon

D. Operarors ofWebsites

Introduction Norice of complaint

Response to notice of cornplaint

Poster does nor wish staternent to be removed

E. Other Means ofTracing Makers ofDefamatory Statements

Norwich Pharmacal applications Other solutions

F. Mode ofTeia]

Background

Applications for [ria]

by

jury

II THE CAUSE OF ACTION FOR DEFAMATION

3. Libel and Slander

A. General Principies Introduction xviii 1.88 1.89 1.92 1.93 2.01 2.01 2.08 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.20 2.20 2.21 2.67

2.71

2.72

2.78 2.79 2.85 2.87 2.88 2.93 2.94 2.95 2.96 2.100 2.103 2.104 2.104 2.108 2.110 2.113 2.115 2.115 2.119 2.121 2.121 2.125 3.01 3.01 STJ00105871

Contents

1.88 1.89 1.92

1.93

I

Tem for libel and slander Slanders rhar are actionable per se Special damage B. Special Cases 3.04 3.07 3.21 3.22 Imroduction 3.22 Broadcasting Acr 1990 3.24 2.01 2.01 2.08 2.15

I

Television and radio Internet

Thearrical performances

C. Procedure and Practice

3.30 3.31 3.49 3.50 2.16 2.17

4. Publication

2.18 A. Publication 4.01 2.20 2.20 2.21 2.67 2.71 2.72

B. Proving mat a Statemenr has been Published General principies

Inferences from direcr evidence Other inferences

Staying proceedings as an abuse of process

4.07 4.07 4.09 4.12 4.16

2.78 C. Multiple Publications of the Same Statemenr 4.17

2.79 Common law multiple publication rule 4.17

2.85 Secrion 8 of the Defamation Act 2013 4.22

2.87 Estimaring the number of publications 4.23

2.88 Defamation proceedings 4.26

2.93 D. IdentifYing the Publication 4.27

2.94 _{E. Publishers-General Principies 4.36}

2.95 _{Commonlaw 4.36}

2.96 _{Secrion 10 of the Defamation Acr 2013 4.37}

2.100 _{Joint and severalliabiliry 4.39}

2.103

F.

Uninrenrional Publishers 4.40

2.104 _{General principies 4.40}

2.104 _{Unauthorized interception ofonline statements 4.44}

2.108

2.110 G. Intermediaries as Publishers 4.47

2.113 Postal and courier services

Telephone carriers

4.47 4.51

2.115 _{Internet intermediaries 4.55}

2.115

2.119 H. Failure tO Remove Defamarory Statements

Commonlaw

4.70 4.70

2.121 _{Section 10 of the Defamation Act 2013 4.89}

2.121

2.125

r.

Republication and Repetition

Republication

4.96 4.96

Repetition 4.112

HION

I

J.

_{DirectingAttenrion tO Defamarory Statements 4.118}

Responsibiliry of rhe directing parry 4.118

Publicarion by rhe original aurhor 4.122

3.01

I

K.

Hyperlinks, Framing, Aggregarion 4.123

3.01

Imroduction 4.123

xix

Contents

Publication by línking, framing, aggregation Publicatíon by the original author

Compatibiliry with article 10 of the ECHR

5.

Identmcation

A. The Concept ofIdenrification B. Identificarion by Name

C.

Unintended Identification

D. Identification ofPersons Not Referred to by Name

Sufl1dent reference to the claimant Group defamation

E. Idenrification in Other Publications

1dentification by the same publisher Identífication by another publisher

F.

Relevance of the Nature of the Publication 6. Defamatory Meaníng

A. Overview

B. Defamatory Meaning ar Common Law

Common Iaw teses

Relationship between reputation and defamation Insules and vulgar abuse

Contexe in which statement is made Relevance ofsodal mores and opinions Standards ofsodery

H arm threshold

C.

Section 1 of the Defamation Act 2013

Introduction

Serious harm threshold

Relationship with common law teses ofdefamarory meaning

D. Ascertaining the Meaning of a Statement

Imputations

Natural and ordinary meaning True or legal innuendos Ordinary person standard Repetition rule

Single meaning mIe

Relevance of the nature of the publication Bane and antidote

lone and expression Gradations of meaning Inferences on inferences

Indefinitely accessible publícations E. Procedure and Practice

Particulars of c1aim Determinaeion of meaning xx 4.129 4.146 4.153 5.01 5.03 5.05 5.08 5.08

5.11

5.15

5.15

5.17 5.22 6.01 6.09 6.09 6.20 6.25 6.29 6.31 6.33 6.38 6.42 6.42 6.46 6.50 6.57 6.57 6.58 6.60 6.64 6.67 6.68 6.71 6.73 6.83 6.89 6.93

6.96

6.108 6.108 6.111 STJ00105871

Contents

4.129 4.146 4.153 5.01 5.03 5.05 5.08 5.08

5.11

5.15 5.15 5.17 5.22 6.01 6.09 6.09 6.20 6.25 6.29 6.31 6.33 6.38 6.42 6.42 6.46 6.50 6.57 6.57 6.58 6.60 6.64 6.67 6.68 6.71 6.73 6.83 6.89 6.93 6.96 6.108 6.108 6.111

7. Serious Harm Threshold

A.

Background Scction 1(1) Secrion 1(2) B. Interprerarion Seriousness Reputation Anual harm Likely harm

Bodies thar trade for profir Orher non-natural legal persons

C. Areas ofApplication Scope ofsecrion 1 Defamatory meaning

Extenr of publication and damage Prospects ofvindication

Common law abuse of process D. Procedure and Practice

III DEFENCES 8. Truth

A.

General Principies

B. Substantial Truth of the Imputation

C. Wide Imputations D. Post-Publication Events

E.

Repetition Rule

F.

Opinions and Comments G. Defendant's Intention

H. Indefinitely Accessible Publications

L Parti

ai

Truth

J.

Polly Peck Principie Common law principIes Criticisms

Section 2 of the Defamation Act 2013

K.

Contexrual Truth

L. Spent Convictions

M. European Convention on Human Rights N. Procedure and Practice

9. Honest Opinion

A.

Introduction B. Firsr Condition xxi 7.01 7.04 7.11 7.16 7.16 7.19 7.23 7.27 7.35 7.42 7.43 7.43 7.49 7.59 7.65 7.70 7.71 8.01 8.05 8.08 8.10 8.14 8.19 8.21 8.23 8.26 8.29 8.29 8.34 8.38 8.43 8.56 8.60 8.62 9.01 9.08 STJ00105871

Contents

C.

Second Condition

D. lhird Condition

Opinion an honest person could have held Section 3(4)(a): any fact which exisred

Secrion 3(4)(b): matters asserted in a privileged statement E. Defendam Did Not Hold the Opiníon

Introduction Corporate defendants Intention of rhe defendant

F.

Publishing the Opinion of Another

G. lndefinitely Accessible Publications H. Imputations and the Polly Peck Principie L Opinions on Private Matters

Common law defence of faír comment Honesr opinion defence

J.

Procedure and Pracrice

10. Absolute Privilege

A. lntroduction

B. Parlíamentary Proceedings and Papers Scope

Questioning and impeaching proceedings

C.

Judicial and Quasi-Judicial Proceedings

Common law principIe Quasi-judicial proceedings Reporrs of judicial proceedings D. Officials of State

E. Complaints to Police and Investigatory Agencies

F.

Solicitors and Clients, Husbands and Wives

G. Other Legislative Occasions

H. Common

Law

Categories Not Closed

l. Adoption and Repetirion

J. Privacy and the Ultimate Balancing Test

K.

Procedure and Practice

11. Duty and Interest Form ofQuallfied Privilege

A. Forms of Qualified Privilege and Related Defences B. Reciprociry ofDury and Interest

Statements of the defence Dury or interest

Reciprocity of interest

Extraneous or irrelevant material Misrakes xxii 9.14 9.19 9.20 9.25 9.34 9.65 9.65 9.68 9.69 9.72 9.78 9.81 9.85 9.85 9.90 9.94 10.01 10.03 10.03 10.08 10.10 10.10 10.13 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.22 10.23 10.24 10.25 11.01 11.07 11.07 11.10 11.12 11.14 11.15 STJ00105871

Contents 9.14 9.19 9.20 9.25 9.34 9.65 9.65 9.68 9.69 9.72 9.78 9.81 9.85 9.85 9.90 9.94 10.01 10.03 10.03 10.08 10.10 10.10 10.13 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.22 10.23 10.24 10.25 11.01 11.07 11.07 11.10 11.12 11.14 11.15

C.

Examples References

Reporting alleged criminal behaviour

Response to an attack

Miscellaneous occasions

Communications by and to candidates for eIection

D. Ancillary and Arrendant Privilege

Publication ancillary to a privileged communicarion Publication bya rhird pany

E. Publication to Uninterested Persons

General principIes Response to an attack Application to the internet

F.

Publication to rhe World ar Large

G. Indefinirely Accessible Publicadons H. Malice

General principIes Inferences af mal ice

Publishing statemems ofathers Indefinitely accessible publications L European Convention on Human Rights

J.

Procedure and Practice

12. Publication on Matter of Public Interest

A. Context Introductian 1he Reynalds defence Parallel developmems

B. Section 4(I)(a): Matter ofPublic Interest Matters of public imerest

Statement complained of pare af a statemem Matter for rhe judge

C.

Section 4(I)(b): Publication in the Public Interest

Genesis af section 4(l)(b) Reasonable beIief Statement complained of In the public interest Editorial judgmem Nan-media defendants D. Reportage

Reportage ar camman law Section 4 and reportage E. Opinions

F.

Spent Convictions

G. Indefinirely Accessible Publications

xxiii 11.18 11.19 11.20 11.21 11.24 11.25 11.29 11.29 11.32 11.34 11.34 11.36 11.37 11.43 11.45 11.52 11.52 11.58 11.64 11.66 11.69 11.70 12.01 12.01 12.04 12.17 12.18 12.19 12.22 12.27 12.28 12.28 12.31 12.34 12.35 12.72 12.75 12.78 12.78 12.86 12.105 12.113 12.116 STJ00105871

Contents H. Malice

I. Privacy and the Ultimate Balancing Test J. Procedure and Practice

13. Fair Report Defences

A. lntroducdon

Forms offair report defence Fair and accurare

Extract

Reperition rule does not apply

Publication to uninterested persons

Indefinitely accessible publications

B. Common Law Fair Report Defence

C. Section 14 Defence Scope Contemporaneity D. Section 15 Defence Form of me defence PartI ofSchedule 1 Part II ofSchedule 1

Public interest and the public benefit

E. Malice

F. Spent Convictions

G.

European Convention on Human Rlghts H. Procedure and Practice

14.

Peer-Reviewed Statements A. lntroduction

Genesis

Relationship with other defences

B. Scientific or Academic Journal

lntroduction Definitions Scope

C. Section 6(1) Defence: Peer-Reviewed Statements First condition

Second condition Scope of the defence

D. Section 6(4) Defence: Publication ofAssessment

lntroduction

Publication in the same journal Assessment of merit

Scientific or academic medt

E. Section 6(5) Defence: Fair and Accurate Copy, Extract, Summary xxiv 12.119 12.122 12.126 13.01 13.01 13.07 13.14 13.15 13.17 13.18 13.20 13.23 13.24 13.29 13.31 13.31 13.36 13.39 13.62 13.68 13.70 13.73 13.74 14.01 14.01 14.04 14.15 14.15 14.18 14.20 14.23 14.23 14.32 14.47 14.49 14.49 14.51 14.52 14.55 14.57 STJ00105871

Contents

I

F.

Malice 14.59 General principies 14.59 12.119 12.122 Malice ofothers 14.66 12.126

G. Publications Prohibited by Law 14.69

H. Procedure and Practice 14.70

13.01 15. Operators ofWebsites 13.01 A. lntroduction 15.01 13.07 13.14 _{B. Section 5 Defence 15.10} 13.15 _{Genesis 15.10} 13.17 _{Section 5 15.14} 13.18 _{Regulations 15.16} 13.20 _{C. Application 15.17} Srarement 15.18 13.23 Posted 15.19 13.24

Operaror ofa websire 15.20

13.29

D. Elements of the Defence 15.32

13.31

General principies 15.32

13.31

Employees and agents 15.34

13.36

Moderation ofstatements 15.35

13.39

Reposted statements 15.36

13.62

E. Matters Defeating the Defence 15.37

Not possible to identifY poster 15.38

13.68 13.70

Notice of complaint 15.43

13.73 _{Failure to respond to notice ofcomplaint 15.45}

13.74 _{F. Malice 15.50} G. RemovalofStatement 15.53 14.01 _{16. Innocent Dissemination} 14.01 A. lntroduction 16.01 14.04

B. Statutory Innocent Dissemination 16.07

14.15

Section 1 defence 16.07

14.15

Authors, editors, and publishers 16.08

14.18

Reasonable care 16.10

14.20

Absence ofknowledge and negligence 16.13

14.23 _{Section 1 (5): matters to which courts must have regard 16.18}

14.23 Employees or agents of authors, editors, and publishers 16.28

14.32

C. Common Law Innocenr Disseminadon 16.29

14.47

Elements of the defence 16.29

14.49 Relationship with the section 1 defence 16.31

14.49 Subordinate distributots 16.42

14.51 _{Absence ofknowledge and negligence 16.54}

14.52

14.55

•

_{17. Electronic Commerce Regulations}

•

A. Genesis and Scope 17.01

14.57 _{Introduction 17.01}

xxv

Contents

lnformation sociery services Mere conduits, caches, and hosts

B.

Regulation 17: Mete Conduits

The provision

Ordinary e-mail messages

Bulletin board and forum postings, web pages Relationship with other principies

C. Regulation 18: Caehing

The provision Scope

Conditions on access to information lndustry rules

Actual knowledge

Relationship with other principies D. Regulation 19: Hosting

'Ihe provision Hosts

Actual knowledge

Awareness offacts and circumstances Negligence

Unlawful information Removal of material

E. Injunetions and Other Non-Peeuniary Remedies

F.

Vertical Direet Effeet of the Direetive on Eleetronic Commeree

General principies Negligent hosrs Monitoring obligations 18. Other Defences

A. Consent

B. Offer to Make Amends Form and content of offer Effect where offer accepred Analysis of offers

Compensation

C. Apology and Payment into Court

19. Limitation Period

A. Limitation Period

B. Extensions to the Limitation Period

C. Addition ofCauses ofAetions and Parties

D. Running ofTime General principIes

Common law consideration of single publication rules E. Seetion 8 Single Publication Rule

lntroducdon xxvi 17.05 17.10 17.11 17.11 17.13 17.16 17.17 17.21 17.21 17.22 17.24 17.25 17.26 17.31 17.32 17.32 17.33 17.38 17.40 17.42 17.50 17.52 17.53 17.56 17.56 17.59 17.60 18.01 18.03 18.05 18.06 18.09 18.10 18.12 19.01 19.03 19.06 19.08 19.08 19.13 19.18 19.18 STJ00105871

17.05 17.10 17.11 17.11 17.13 17.16 17.17 17.21 17.21 17.22 17.24 17.25 17.26 17.31 17.32 17.32 17.33 17.38 17.40 17.42 1750 17.52 1753 ~rce _17.56 17.56 17.59 17.60 18.01 18.03 18.05 18.06 18.09 18.10 18.12 19.01 19.03 19.06 19.08 19.08 19.13 19.18 19.18

Contents

lhe public and sections of the public 19.25

Prior publication 19.33

Subsequent publications by the same person 19.36

Substantially the same 19.37

Materially di/ferent manner of publication 19.38

Discretion to exclude limitation period 19.42

Compatibiliry with the ECHR 19.43

IV REMEDIES AND RELATED MATTERS 20. Non-Pecuniary Remedies

A

Inrerim Injunctions 20.01

General principies 20.01

European influences 20.17

Human Rights Act 1998 20.19

Defamation Act 2013 20.26

Statements about candidates for e1ection 20.27

B. Permanent Injunctions 20.28

General principies 20.28

Injunctions with extraterritorial reach 20.33

Human Rights Act 1998 20.34

C. Summary of Court Judgmen t 20.36

Section 12 of the Defamation Act 2013 20.36

Availabiliry 20.42

E/fect on damages 20.45

Summary ofjudgmenc 20.46

Time, manner, form, and place of publication 2050

Role of me court 2056

Discretion 2059

D. Order to Remove or Cease Distribution 20.63

Introduction 20.63 Genesis 20.66 Scope 20.69 Availabiliry 20.71 Time ofapplication 20.73 Natural justice 20.75 Discretion 20.77 Breach 20.78 E. Staying Proceedings 20.79 Abuse of process 20.79 Non-justiciabiliry 20.86

F.

Summary Disposal of Defamation Actions 20.87

Summary disposal procedure 20.87

Summary relief 20.91

Applicable principies 20.92

G. Statements in Open Coure 20.100

xxvii

Contents 21. Damages A. Introduction B. Compensatory Damages General principies levei of damages C. Aggravated Damages General principies Aggravating circumstances D. Exemplary Damages E. Mitigatíon of Damages Apologies

Damages already recovered or agreed, related defamation actions Bad reputation

F.

Appellate Interference with Damages Awards G. Joint Publishers H. Damages Awards 22. Vicarious Liability A. Overview B. General PrincipIes Introduction

The employer-employee reIarionship Scope of the employmem

Effect of employer prohibitions Indemnities from employees Exemplary damages Malice C. Defamation Act 2013 Imroductíon Section 10 Section 5

23. Recognition

and

Enforcement ofJudgmentsAbroad A. General Principies

Imroductíon Brussels I

Lugano Convention

Reciprocal recognition and enforcement Intra-jurisdictional recognition and enforcement Commonlaw

B. Enforcement ofJudgments in the United States

General rule

Refusals to recognize English defamarion judgments Declararory judgments

Libel protection legislation

xxviii 21.01 21.04 21.04 21.22 21.28 21.28 21.32 21.35 21.40 21.40 21.44 21.47 21.56 21.57 21.62 22.01 22.04 22.04 22.06 22.09 22.16 22.21 22.23 22.24 22.25 22.25 22.28 22.35 23.01 23.01 23.03 23.04 23.05 23.06 23.07 23.08 23.08 23.09 23.15 23.37 STJ00105871

Contents 21.01 21.04 21.04 21.22 21.28 21.28 21.32 21.35 21.40 21.40 21.44 21.47 21.56 21.57 21.62 22.01 22.04 22.04 22.06 22.09 22.16 22.21 22.23 22.24 22.25 22.25 22.28 22.35 23.01 23.01 23.03 23.04 23.05 23.06 23.07 23.08 23.08 23.09 23.15 23.37 SPEECHAct Summary V EUROPEAN INFLUENCES 24. Jurisprudence ofthe European Court ofHuman Rights

A.

Relevance

Defamation actions

Applicatíons to the European Court ofHuman Rights Objective

B. Artícle 10 Right to Freedom ofExpressíon

Prescribed by law

Necessary in a democratic sodety Types of protected expression Fact and opínion

Responsibility to verifY facts

Unlawful1y obtained material Pre-eminent role of the press Form of publicadon

lnddinitely accessible publications Motive of the publisher

Damages awards Costs

Injunctive and other relief

C. Article 8 Right to Respect for Private and Family Life

Introduction Violations ofartide 8 Limits

D. Article 6 Right to a Fair Hearing

E. Compatibility ofDefamation Law PrincipIes and ECHR Rights

lmroduction Areas ofcompatibility Areas ofincompatibility

Scope for arguments about incompatibility

VI CONFLICT OF LAWS 25. Jurisdictíon

A.

Introduction

B.

Sources ofLaw

European Union, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland Intra-United Kingdom

Rest of me world

C. European Union, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland

Overvíew Domicile

xxix

23.41 23.43 24.01

24m

24.04 24.07 24.09 24.13 24.18 24.23 24.45 24.48 24.54 24.55 24.63 24.65 24.70 24.71 24.75 24.76 24.79 24.79 24.82 24.85 24.89 24.91 24.91 24.95 24.101 24.105 25.01 25.06 25.06 25.09 25.10 25.13 25.13 25.16 STJ00105871

Contents

]urisdicrion founded on domicile Place where lhe harmful event occurred Joim tortfeasors

Submission to jurisdiction

State immuniry

Forum non conveniens

Anti-suit injunctions D. Intra-United Kingdom

General principIes

Forum non conveniens

E. Rest of the World Inrroduction

Section 9 of the Defamation Act 20 13

Forum non conveniens at common law

C1early the most appropriate place test

26. Choice ofLaw

A. Sources ofLaw Introducdon RomeII Commonlaw

Elecrronic Commerce Regulations B. Double Actionabiliry Test

Phillips v Eyre

Civil actionabiliry Flexibiliry

C. Choice ofLaw in Defamation Cases

Authorities

Availabiliry of foreign law defences Imra-United Kingdom cases D. Substance-Procedure Distinction

General principIes Defamation Act 2013 Limitation periods Damages

E. Electronic Commerce Regulations Introduction

Service providers established in the United Kingdom Service providers established in other member States Relationship with Rome II

27. ProofofForeign Law

A. General Principies B. Judicial Notice

C. Expert Evidence

D. Production ofLegislation or Judgmenrs E. Defamation Actions xxx 25.19 25.20 25.25 25.28 25.29 25.30 25.35 25.37 25.37 25.40 25.42 25.42 25.51 25.62 25.74 26.01 26.01 26.03 26.06 26.07 26.08 26.08 26.12 26.18 26.24 26.24 26.27 26.42 26.43 26.43 26.44 26.45 26.48 26.53 26.53 26.55 26.60 26.65 27.01 27.05 27.09 27.11 27.13 STJ00105871

25.19 25.20 25.25 25.28 25.29 25.30 25.35 25.37 25.37 25.40 25.42 25.42 25.51 25.62 25.74 26.01 26.01 26.03 26.06 26.07 26.08 26.08 26.12 26.18 26.24 26.24 26.27 26.42 26.43 26.43 26.44 26.45 26.48 26.53 26.53 26.55 26.60 26.65 27.01 27.05 27.09 27.11 27.13 Contents

VII RELATED CAUSES OF ACTION 28. Criminal Libel

A.

Background B. Abolition

C.

Other Jurisdictions 29. Malicious Falsehood

A.

General PrincipIes B. ActionabIe Statemenrs

C.

Opinions

D. Falsity and the Ascertainment ofMeaning E. Idenrification

F. Malice G.Damages

Açtual damage

Seçtion 3 ofthe Defamation Açt 1952 Anxiery and disrress

H.

Limitation Period

I. Staying Proceedings as an Abuse ofProcess J. Interim Injunctíons

K.

Ultimare Balancing Test

L. Relationship between Defamation and Malicious Falsehood Imroduçtion

Statements that are not defamatory Single publication rule

1hreshold of seriousness Secondary publishers

Publications on matters of public interest Persons domkiled abroad

Single meaning ruIe Deceased persons

30. Misuse ofPrivate Information

A.

Inrroduction

Context

Human Rights Açt

Relationship between privacy and defamation B. Breach of Confidence

C.

General Principies 1nfluences

Two-stage approach Pre-existing relationships Accrual of the cause of açtion

xxxi 28.01 28.04 28.05 29.01 29.06 29.10 29.14 29.17 29.18 29.23 29.23 29.26 29.29 29.33 29.35 29.37 29.39 29.42 29.42 29.44 29.45 29.47 29.48 29.52 29.53 29.55 29.56 30.01 30.01 30.04 30.06 30.09 30.17 30.17 30.20 30.22 30.24 STJ00105871

Contents D. Fim Stage: Private Information

Reasonable expectatian af privacy Relevance af a prior relatianship Privacy codes

Phoragraphs Children

Informatian in rhe public damain Inaccuracies

Particular aspecrs of privare and family !ife

E. Second Stage: Balancing Exercise

Introductian Human Rights Act Proporrianalíty Sexual relationships Motive af the defendant Setting the recard srraighr Expasure af crime Children Editorial judgment Reliability ofsources

F.

Interim Injunctions lntroducrion Human Rights Act ReJevant matters

Fim stage: private infarmation Second stage: balancing exercise Balance afjustice

Abuse of process Farmulatian

Judgmem af the caurt

G. Other Remedies H. Appellate Imerference L Procedure and Practice 31. Data Protection Act 1998

A. Introduction B. Key Dehnitions

C.

Data Protection Principies

Firsr data protectian principle-fair and lawful processing of data Other data prorectian principIes

D. Rights ofData Subjecrs

General righrs Right to compensation E. Exemptions

F.

Injunctions xxxii 30.25 30.25 30.27 30.29 30.34 30.43 30.46 30.49 30.52 30.65 30.65 30.71 30.75 30.80 30.83 30.85 30.87 30.89 30.90 30.92 30.93 30.93 30.94 30.96 30.98 30.99 30.100 30.106 30.107 30.108 30.109 30.113 30.114 31.01 31.04 31.10 31.11 31.24 31.25 31.25 31.27 31.30 31.39 STJ00105871

30.25 30.25 30.27 30.29 30.34 30.43 30.46 30.49 30.52 30.65 30.65 30.71 30.75 30.80 30.83 30.85 30.87 30.89 30.90 30.92 30.93 30.93 30.94 30.96 30.98 30.99 30.100 30.106 30.107 30.108 30.109 30.113 30.114 31.01 31.04 31.10 31.11 31.24 31.25 31.25 31.27 31.30 31.39 Contents 32. Negligence A. General Principies B. Application and Limits C. Media Defendams 33. Protection Erom Harassment

A. Harassmem B. Civil Actionability

General principies Defences

C. Harassmem by Repeated Publications D. Injunctions

E. Criminal Sanctions

F.

Harassmem and Imrusion at Common Law

34. Other Complaints Mechanisms A. Ofcom

B. Press Complaims Commission C. Leveson Inquiry

Background Recommendations Draft Royal Charters

Appendix A: Selected Legislation

Appendix B: Civil Procedure Rules, Protocols, and Practice Directions Appendix C: Imroduction to American Defamation Law

Appendix O: Other Liberalized Defences of Qualified Privilege Appendix E: Damages Awards in Defamation Actions

Appendix F: Damages Awards in Misuse ofPrivate Information Actions Appendix G: Precedems

lndex

xxxiii 32.01 32.03 32.06 33.01 33.03 33.03 33.06 33.07 33.18 33.21 33.22 34.01 34.06 34.09 34.09 34.13 34.15 621 647 653 663 671 695 697 729 STJ00105871