CPL
INDEX
CPL FLIGHT PLANNING
1. Terminology
01
2. Aerodromes
07
3. Graphs
17
4. Flight Graphs
19
5. Weight & Balance
41
6. CP/PET & PNR
57
Annex A
Sample Exams
65
Annex B
Load Sheets
71
Annex C
Answers to Questions
87
King Air
B200 EE-20 Manual
(separate booklet)
Copyright
2001 Flight Training College of Africa
All Rights Reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever including electronic, photographic, photocopying, facsimile, or stored in a
CHAPTER 1
TERMINOLOGY
Airspeed terminologyVa Design manoeuvre speed. The maximum speed at which full application of controls can be made.
Vf Design flap speed. The highest speed at which flaps may be activated. Vfe Maximum flap extended speed.
Vle Maximum landing gear extended speed. Vlo Maximum landing gear operating speed. Vlof Lift off speed.
Vmca Minimum control speed - air. Vmcg Minimum control speed - ground. VR Rotation speed
Vref: Landing reference speed (1.3 x Vso) Vs Stall speed.
Vso Stall speed in the landing configuration.
Vsse Minimum intentional one-engine inoperative speed. Vx Best angle of climb speed.
Vy Best rate of climb speed. V1 Take-off decision speed. V2 Take-off safety speed.
Temperature terminology
IOAT Indicated Outside Air Temperature as read from the indicator (not corrected). OAT Outside Air Temperature (corrected)
TAT Total Air Temperature. Measured by a Rosemount Probe.
SAT Static Air Temperature. The correct temperature of the ambient air. RAT Ram Air Temperature.
Temp Dev. The difference between the actual OAT and the temperature of that level in the ISA atmosphere. The ISA lapse rate is 1.98°c per 1000ft. For the purpose of calculations, a lapse rate of 2°c per 1000’ can be used.
Pressure Alt Height above the 1013.25 hPa level
Density Alt. The higher the density altitude, the lower the air density and performance of the aircraft's engines. Runway length requirements increase with a potential corresponding reduction in the take-off weight. Most performance graphs contain positioning for pressure altitude and temperature; a calculation to determine density altitude is not required.
To calculate density altitude, convert airfield elevation to pressure altitude, then compute using a nav. computer.
Pressure Altitude 2915 feet QNE 1013 hPa 360 feet 30 ft x 12 hPa Airfield Elevation 3275 feet QNH 1025 hPa OAT +32°C DA 5489 feet.
Aerodrome Pressure QFE, The pressure setting used to indicate the height above the aerodrome in use. The use of QFE is rare in South Africa. Conversion factors Use the pathfinder, whiz wheel or a calculator.
1 Imperial Gallon = 1.201 US Gallons 1 Imperial Gallon = 4.5461 Litres 1 US Gallon = 3.7854 Litres 1 Kilogram = 2.2046 Pounds 1 Foot = 0.3048 Metres 1 Metre = 3.2808 Feet Question 1: 382 Kgs of fuel at SG 0.79 are loaded. The number of US Gallons is? Question 2: The weight in kilograms of 450 Imperial Gallons of fuel (SG 0.82) is? Question 3: The weight in kilograms of 375 US Gallons of fuel (SG 0.81) is?
SEMI-CIRCULAR FLIGHT LEVELS VFR 359 000 EVEN THOUSANDS + 500 FT TO FL 285 THEN ODD THOUSANDS + 500 FT TO FL 275 THEN 285 320 360 400 etc 180 179 275 300 340 380 etc
BASED ON MAGNETIC TRACKS IFR 359 000 EVEN THOUSANDS TO FL 280 THEN ODD THOUSANDS TO FL 290 THEN 280 310 350 390 etc 290 330 370 410 etc
QUESTIONS
1. Airfield Elevation 5327 Feet, Temperature +27°C,
QNH 1025 hPa. The Density Altitude is :-a) 7876 ft
b) 8305 ft c) 7607 ft
2. Airfield Elevation 1075 feet, Temperature +16°C,
QNH 995 hPa. The Density Altitude is :-a) 2130 ft
b) 1444 ft c) 771 ft
3. At 0600 Z the temperature at an airfield (Pressure Altitude 3575 feet) was +12°C. At 1400 Z the temperature rose to +27°C.
The increase in Density Altitude was :-a) 1210 ft
b) 1407 ft c) 1807 ft
4. At an airfield where the Relative Humidity is high the :-(a) Take-Off performance of an aircraft will be enhanced, (b) The climb performance of an aircraft will be degraded, (c) The landing performance of an aircraft will be improved.
There are two methods to determine the Density Altitude of an airfield elevation. Method 1 Using the Electronic Flight Computer
Method 2 Calculate the temperature deviation between the actual temperature at the airfield pressure altitude and the ISA temperature for the airfield pressure altitude. Multiply this figure by 120 and add or subtract to or from the pressure altitude to give density altitude. This conversion allows 120ft per °C of temperature deviation between reported outside temperature and ISA.
Beware; airfields cooler than ISA will have a lower density altitude than airfields warmer than ISA.
CONVERSION OF hPa TO INCHES OF MERCURY (“Hg)
There is no complex formula involved; it is simply by linear interpolation . You will already know that 1013.25 hPa = 29.92”Hg.
CHAPTER 2
AERODROMES
AIRFIELD DETAILSThe physical dimensions of the runway, stopway and clearway may affect an aircraft's maximum take-off weight.
STOPWAY
The stopway is an extension to the end of the runway, which may be used to stop the aircraft in the event of a rejected take-off. The stopway must be at least as wide as the runway, able to support the aircraft without incurring structural damage, but is not intended for normal use.
CLEARWAY
Clearway may be used for the initial climb from lift-off to 50 feet above the ground. The clearway is an area beyond the end of the runway, which complies with the following criteria:
It must be at least 300 ft wide on either side of the extended centre-line; It must be under airport control;
It must be clear of obstacles;
The elevation of the clearway may not be higher than the end of the runway; The clearway includes the stopway (if available);
DECLARED RUNWAY DISTANCES as specified by ICAO TAKE-OFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA)
The length of runway, which is declared available and suitable for, the ground run of an aeroplane taking off.
ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE (ASDA)
The length of the take-off run available plus the length of stopway available (if stopway is provided).
LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE (LDA)
The length of runway which is declared available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing. The landing distance available commences at the threshold and extends for the length of runway after the threshold. However, the threshold may be displaced from the extremity of the runway when it is considered necessary to make a corresponding displacement of the approach surface by reason of obstacles in the approach path to the runway.
North
RUNWAY TORA ASDA TODA LDA feet feet feet feet 09 2000 2300 2580 1850 27 2000 2350 2350 2000
RUNWAY SURFACE CONDITIONS
If the runway surface is contaminated by, for example, water or snow, the aircraft will require more runway length to reach takeoff speed. If this extra runway length is not available, the aircraft's take-off weight will have to be reduced.
RUNWAY SLOPE
An uphill slope requires a longer off run, and therefore, a possible reduction of the take-off weight. A runway with a downhill slope would have the opposite effect.
A point worth bearing in mind is that an uphill slope would mean less distance required to bring the aircraft to a stop in the event of an aborted take-off and vice versa for a downhill slope. A definitive answer on the effect of slope on an aircraft's take-off weight would, of course, be extracted from the appropriate performance graphs.
LANSERIA RWY 06L Threshold Elevation 4517 feet
RWY 24R Threshold Elevation 4393 feet Runway Length 3048 metres To calculate runway slope: Difference in Elevat ion 124 fe et
TAKE - OFF WIND COMPONENT
A tailwind component at take-off increases the amount of runway required for take-off, and therefore, possibly a reduction of the take-off weight. A headwind component at take-off would have the opposite effect.
CLIMB LIMITATIONS
CLIMB or WAT (Weight Altitude Temperature) LIMIT
The combination of weight and air density (altitude and temperature) affects the performance of the aircraft, and even if the aircraft can get off the ground with an engine failure at V1, its rate of climb would be too low to satisfy the required climb gradients during the Take-Off Flight Path. Obstacles within the airfield boundaries and close than 200' to the flight path must be cleared by at least 50' vertically. Obstacles outside the airfield boundaries and closer than 300' to the flight path must be cleared by at least 50' vertically.
PERFORMANCE CLASSIFICATION NUMBER (PCN) and AIRCRAFT CLASSIFICATION NUMBER (ACN)
The performance classification number for a runway is an expression of its bearing strength. The aircraft classification number is derived graphically using its single isolated wheel loading (SIWL) and tyre pressure. ACN can also prove to have a limiting effect on the maximum take-off weight of an aircraft.
BRAKE ENERGY LIMIT
In the process of bringing an aircraft to a stop, its brakes convert kinetic energy into heat energy. The amount of heat energy that the brakes can absorb certainly has limits. In airspeed terminology the speed at which this limit occurs is known as Vmbe. The greater the take-off weight of an aircraft, the higher its take-off speed will be and the more energy the brakes will have to absorb in the event of an aborted take-off. Although the brake energy limit may not directly limit the take-off weight, many aircraft have a minimum turn around time between landing and subsequent take-off, which will ensure adequate braking in the event of an aborted take-off. This minimum turn around time is directly proportional to the weight at which the aircraft landed and the weight for the next take-off.
TYRE SPEED LIMIT
Much like the aircraft's brakes, the tyres also have certain limitations to ensure their structural integrity. The limit is the maximum true ground speed that the tyres can absorb. The higher the take-off weight of the aircraft, the higher the take-off speeds will be, and this may prove to be a limiting factor requiring a reduction in the maximum take-off weight.
TAKE OFF FLIGHT PATH
175ft
3000 ft
Select the correct take-off flight path graph to find the climb gradient required to clear the above 175ft high tree if the tree is located 3000ft beyond reference zero. The aerodrome elevation is 1000’ Pressure height and the temperature is +25 c.
Graph on page 5-28 (Smaller graph on the right of the page). Enter with the horizontal distance from Reference Zero figure. In this case its: 3000ft
Enter with 3000 feet along the bottom of the expanded graph and then intersect the 175ft (obstacle height) to get the answer of 4.8%
Now use the graph titled Net gradient of Climb to find the maximum weight for this climb with 0% of flap…
Use the graphs on pages 5-37 and 5-41.
Enter the graph with the Temperature and intersect the Pressure altitude, then across to intersect the gradient and a vertical line down to reveal the weight.
Answers: 0% flap = 40% flap = Example 2 ( 5-28, 5-37)
An aircraft has a TODR of 1250m, and there is a hill located 2130m from the start of the runway, and its highest point is located 200’ agl. The aerodrome elevation is 2860’ amsl, the QNH is 998 hPa, and the temperature is +18 c.
Find the Climb gradient required, and the max weight for the climb with 0% flap… Example 3 (5-28, 5-37)
An aircraft has a reference zero figure of 1990m, there is a temporary crane operating 1990m from the end of the clearway (i.e. TODA) along the extended centreline, the cranes maximum height is 480’ agl, the aerodrome is 5550’ amsl, QNH 1010 hPa and the temperature is +35 c. Find the Climb gradient required, and the max weight for the climb with 0% flap.
TODA
Reference zero point
WIND CALCULATIONS
Using the graph on page 5-33 or your electronic flight computer find the following: Example 1
On a runway with directions 18/36, with a wind of 030/35 find the crosswind and headwind. Prior to entering the graph work out the most into wind runway, in this case its runway 36, then work out the difference in degrees from the runway direction to wind direction. Here it’s the difference between 360 and 030, so its 30 degrees.
Enter the graph at the point of intersection of 30° and 35 kts, the read off the answers of31kts hw and 18 kt x-wind.
Example 2
An aircraft has the following TAF, what will be the headwind and crosswind for a take off on runway 16/34?
PARIS/CHARLES DE GAULLE LFPG 03/09-18Z 02033KT CAVOK TEMPO 1013 SCT033 T20/12Z T21/15Z
Example 3
Using the following TAF find the tailwind component for a take off on runway 03/21 STAVANGER ENZV 03/09-18Z 33015G25KT 9999 FEW015 SCT040
AVERAGE WIND CALCULATIONS
An unusual method must be employed when working out the average wind for the exam questions. BEWARE there is only one way to get the correct answer, AND ITS DIFFERENT TO THE METHOD USED IN NAVIGATION…
The following figures relate to a Flight Plan
SECTOR TAS WC GS DIST TIME A to TOC 300 -112 188 110 0 : 35
WORKING
SECTOR TAS WC GS DIST TIME A to TOC 300 -112 188 110 0 : 35 TOC to B 495 +109 604 318 0 : 44 B to C 488 -39 449 561 1 : 15 C to TOD 476 -51 425 672 1 : 35 TOD to D 300 -114 186 90 0 : 29 1751 4 : 38 Step 1
Add up the TAS column to get 2059 kts total TAS’s
Step 2
Add up the DIST column to get 1751nm total
Step 3
Now divide the total TAS column by the total time 4hr 38min, 444kts, and do the same for the DIST column, so you get then 378kts.
Step 4
Now you have an average TAS of 444kts, and an average DIST of 378kt, so subtract one from the other to get the answer of 66kts average headwind component.
REVISION QUESTIONS
At an airfield the runway details are
:-RWY 06 RWY 24 Runway length 4000 feet 4000 feet Stopway 350 feet 450 feet Clearway 600 feet 700 feet Displaced Threshold 200 feet Using this information answer questions 1to 4.
1 The Take-Off Distance (TODA) for RWY 06 is :-a) 4150 ft
b) 4350 ft c) 4600 ft
2 The Accelerate Stop Distance (ASDA) for RWY 24 is :-a) 4000 ft
b) 4450 ft b) 4700 ft
3 The Landing Distance Available (LDA) for RWY 06 is :- a) 3800 ft
b) 4000 ft c) 4350 ft
4 The Take-Off Run Available (TORA) for RWY 24 is :-a) 4000 ft
b) 4350 ft c) 4700 ft
5. Runway 08/26 at Port Elizabeth is 1980 metres in length. The threshold elevation of RWY 08 is 225 feet.
The threshold elevation of RWY 26 is 185 feet. The slope of RWY 26 is
:-6. Runway 10/28 at East London is 1935 metres in length. The threshold elevation of RWY 10 is 431 feet.
The threshold elevation of RWY 28 is 383 feet. The slope of RWY 10 is
:-(a) 0.69 % DN (b) 0.76 % DN (c) 0.84 % DN
7. An aerodrome has been surveyed and the following figures have been relayed to you prior to departure. Find the amount Stopway , Strip length and Clearway length for all runways…(all figures given are in metres)
RUNWAY TORA ASDA TODA LDA
01 890 890 1124 800
19 890 890 1090 890
15 3450 4700 6200 3450
33 3450 4850 5350 3450
8. An aircraft is to depart from the following runway what is the crosswind component on runway 25?
BERGEN ENBR 03/09-18Z 33020KT 9999 FEW025= (a) 4kt from right
(b) nil
(c) 20kt from right
9. Runway 06 W/V 100/27 The wind Component for Take-Off is :-(a) 14 Kts Hw
(b) 17 Kts Hw (c) 21 Kts Hw
10. In order to Take-Off an aircraft requires a Runway Headwind Component of at least 15 Kts. The maximum permitted Cross Wind Component is 30 Kts. The Runway in use is 09 and the Wind Direction is 130°. The maximum and minimum wind speeds that will allow take-off are
:-(a) 20 and 46 Kts (b) 20 and 40 Kts (c) 25 and 46 Kts
11. An aerodrome has just been surveyed and the surveyor has come with the following figures. Utilise these figures to find:
a- TODA b- TORA c- ASDA d- LDA Runway direction is 09/27
* all distance are from end of runway strip….
Strip length = 1380m Clear area of grass 650m Obstacle free area 1600m fm strip end Obstacle free area 350m
CHAPTER 3
MISC GRAPHS
GRAPH 5 - 13 AIRSPEED CALIBRATIONEnter with IAS 89 Kts, move vertically to the reference line, then horizontally and read off CAS 90 Kts.
OR
Enter with CAS 90 Kts, move horizontally to the reference line, then vertically and read off IAS 89 Kts.
NOTE: CAS (Calibrated Airspeed) is the American version of RAS (Rectified Airspeed) GRAPH 5 - 15 ALTIMETER CORRECTION
Flaps 0 % IAS 200 Kts FL 260
= 30 feet ADDED to INDICATED ALTITUDE 25 970 feet INDICATED ALTITUDE + 30 feet
= 26 000 feet ACTUAL ALTITUDE
OR
26 000 feet INDICATED ALTITUDE + 30 feet = 26 030 feet ACTUAL ALTITUDE Flaps 100 % IAS 130 Kts 8000 feet
= 15 feet SUBTRACTED from INDICATED ALTITUDE 8000 feet INDICATED ALTITUDE - 15 feet
= 7985 feet ACTUAL ALTITUDE
OR
8015 feet INDICATED ALTITUDE - 15 feet = 8000 feet ACTUAL ALTITUDE Further Examples
INDICATED OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE
Using graph on page 5-18, find the IOAT by subtracting the correction figure from your OAT. Enter with CAS and Pressure altitude.
Example
The aircraft is slogging along at FL330 at 195kt in ISA, the OAT is?
STALL SPEED
Use the graph on page 5-29, enter with weight, flaps and angle of bank to get the Vs in either IAS or CAS.
PRESSURISATION CONTROL SETTINGS
Using the graph on page 5-106, you can attain the Cabin altitude setting for landing (if destination is not at MSL). Work through the following examples to get used to the chart.
REMEMBER to convert QNH in hectopascals to Inches of Mercury.
1. An aircraft is landing at and aerodrome that has a QNH of 1010hpa and an elevation of 5500ft amsl, what should the cabin pressure controller be set to?
2. An aircraft is planning a descent to arrive at an aerodrome that is 6400ft amsl, and the tower has advised that the QFE is
810hPa, what should the cabin controller be set to?
3. An aircraft is planning to arrive at an aerodrome that has a pressure height of –500ft, what should the controller be set to?
CHAPTER 4
FLIGHT GRAPHS
TAKE - OFF GRAPHSTake-Off graphs are entered with PRESSURE ALTITUDE and TEMPERATURE. If
Airfield Elevation is given with QNH, then Pressure Altitude must be calculated before
entering the graph.
TAKE - OFF DISTANCE - FLAPS 0 % GRAPH 5 - 34 TAKE - OFF DISTANCE - FLAPS 40 % GRAPH 5 - 38 If Aircraft Weight is given and the Take-Off Distance or Ground Roll is required 1 Enter with Temperature, move vertically to Pressure Altitude.
2. From this point move horizontally to the Aircraft Weight reference line which is 12 500 Lbs. If the Aircraft weight is 12 500 Lbs, continue horizontally to the next reference line. If the Aircraft Weight is less than
12 500 Lbs move down the slope to the Aircraft Weight given in the question.
3. From this point move horizontally to the Wind Component reference line. Move down the slope for a Headwind Component, move up the slope for a Tailwind Component, then horizontally to the next reference line.
4. If the question requires the Take-Off Distance move up the slope to the end of the graph.
5. If the question requires the Take-Off Ground Roll continue horizontally to the end of the graph.
If the Runway Length is given and the Maximum Take-Off Weight is required 1. Enter with Temperature, move vertically to Pressure Altitude.
2. From this point move horizontally to the Aircraft Weight reference line which is 12 500 Lbs. Draw a line down the slope to 9000 Lbs.
EXAMPLES
1. If the aircraft flaps are U/S and the airfield you wish to depart from has the following actual conditions:
QNH 1010hpa OAT 16°C Airfield ht 3030ft amsl Aircraft weight 10 980lbs Wind component 350/30 Runway 18/36
What is the Take Off Distance Required, and the speed for the take off?
2. If the Captain requests you to do a 40% flap takeoff what will be the Max Take Off Weight under the following conditions:
QNH 998hpa
OAT +2°C
Pressure ht 5000ft
Wind component 5 TW (one way airstrip) Runway 09/27
Take off dist avail. 765m
3. If the aircraft is to make a 0% flap take off under the following conditions what will be the Take Off Distance Required?
QNH 998hpa
OAT Air temp gauge U/S Density height 1450ft
Wind component 150/22 Runway 01/19 Take off weight 11 800 lbs
4. The aircraft is to make a take off from a airfield under the following conditions, find the Max Take Off Weight?
QFE 900hpa
OAT +20°C Elevation 3230ft Wind component 090/20 Runway 18/36 Take off dist avail. 1070m
ACCELERATE - STOP GRAPHS 5 - 35 and 5 - 39
The graphs are similar to the Take-Off graphs.
If a Runway has STOPWAY it may be used with these graphs.
1. Find the Accelerate Stop Distance Required under the following conditions…. Flaps 40% QNH 985hpa OAT +20°C Elevation 1000ft Wind component 250/18 Runway 09/27 Aircraft take off wt 10 220lbs
2. Find the Accelerate Stop Distance and V1 speed under the following conditions…. Flaps U/S QNH 1012hpa OAT +2°C Elevation 2910ft Wind component 010/19 Runway 15/33 Aircraft take off wt 11 400lbs
ACCELERATE - GO GRAPHS 5 - 36 and 5 - 40
The graphs are similar to the Take-Off graphs.
If a Runway has CLEARWAY it may be used with these graphs. Refer to the note above the
graph:-Useable CLEARWAY cannot exceed 25 % of the Runway Length.
1. Find the accelerate-go distance and V speeds for a take off under the following conditions: Flaps 40% QNH 1012hpa OAT +2°C Density height 2500ft Wind component 025/25 Runway 16/34 Aircraft take off wt 12 000lbs
2. Find the accelerate go distance with ice vanes extended and the V speeds for a take off under the following conditions:
Flaps 0% QNH 1000hpa OAT +21°C Elevation 500ft Wind component vrb/10 Runway 18/36 Aircraft take off wt 10 800
MINIMUM TAKE OFF POWER
Use graphs on pages 5-31 and 5-32..
CAUTION 2 GRAPHS- one with ice vanes extended and one without.
Example 1
With an aerodrome that has a pressure height of 6500ft and OAT of +15°C what is the minimum take off power that could be used with ice vanes retracted?
Example 2
With an aerodrome that has a elevation of 2860ft amsl, a QNH of 995hPa and a temperature of +22°C find the minimum power that could be used for take off with ice vanes extended?
CLIMB – TIME – FUEL - DISTANCE TO CLIMB GRAPH 5 - 45
Example 1 Climb from Sea Level (OAT +15°C) to FL260 (OAT -10°C) Aircraft Weight 12 500 Lbs
Time 25 mins Fuel 275 Lbs Distance 80 nm Example 2 Climb from 5430ft (OAT +28°C) to FL260 (OAT -10°C)
Aircraft Weight 12 500 Lbs
Sea Level to FL260 Time 25 mins Fuel 275 Lbs Distance 80 nm Sea Level to 5430 ft Time 3 mins Fuel 45 Lbs Distance 11 nm 5430 ft to FL260 Time 22 mins Fuel 230 Lbs Distance 69 nm Mean Climb TAS Time 22 mins Distance 69 nm TAS 188 Kts Examples
1.
Find the fuel, time and distance to climb from a sea level ISA aerodrome to FL300, where the temperature is –30°C at Max Take Off Weight.2.
Find the time, fuel, distance and average climb speed to climb from the following aerodrome to altitude of 23 000ft where the OAT is predicted to be –15°CAircraft config. Ice vanes extended Aircraft weight 10 000lbs
QNH 995hpa
OAT +21°C Elevation 1750ft amsl
3. Find the time, fuel and distance to climb to a density height of 25 000ft under the following conditions from the given aerodrome:
Aircraft config. Ice vanes retracted Aircraft weight 12 000lbs QNH 1020hpa OAT +15°C Elevation 3130ft amsl Wind at aerodrome 045/20 Wind at 25 000ft 075/105 Track 060 M
RATE & ANGLE OF CLIMB
ANGLE OF CLIMB
To work out the aircrafts angle of climb, or climb gradient, use the following formula: CLIMB GRADIENT = HEIGHT GAINED
DISTANCE TRAVELLED
Therefore is you have gained 550ft of altitude and distance from takeoff from your GPS reads 8000ft, use the formula to find your climb gradient…
550
= 8000
= 0.069
To get a % multiply by 100 therefore = 0.069 x 100 = 6.9%
In the cockpit this can be worked out easily by using the following pilots formula: Angle of Climb= Rate of Climb (fpm)
Speed (kt) Example 1
An aircraft climbs out from a sea level aerodrome under ISA conditions with IAS of 80kts, HWC 20kt and ROC 550ft/min. Estimate the angle of climb.
CRUISE
CONSTANT POWER/SPEED CRUISE TABLES
The tables are based on Temperature Deviation from ISA. If OAT is given in a question calculate the ISA + or ISA - value.
TAS To calculate TAS for a particular question it is often necessary to interpolate. Example 1.
Recommended Cruise Power Page 5 – 55
ISA +20°C FL230 Aircraft Weight 11 600 Lbs
12 000 Lbs 11 600 Lbs 11 000 Lbs
FL 220 TAS 267 TAS 271
FL 230 TAS 265.5 TAS 267.1 TAS 269.5
FL 240 TAS 264 TAS 268
At FL230 the difference is 4 Kts per 1000 Lbs
4 Kts
1000 Lbs × 400 Lbs = 1.6 Kts increase f or 400 Lbs weight re duction fr om 12 000 Lbs
Example 2.
Recommended Cruise Power Pages 5 - 55 and 5 - 56
ISA +23°C FL270 Aircraft Weight 11 000 Lbs ISA + 20°C ISA + 23°C ISA + 30°C
FL 260 TAS 265 TAS 259
FL 270 TAS 262.5 TAS 261 TAS 257
FL 280 TAS 260 TAS 255
MAXIMUM EN-ROUTE WEIGHT GRAPH 5 - 24
The graph requires the QNH in Inches of Mercury. If the QNH is given in hectopascals then convert by ratio.
Given QNH 1023.7 hPa QNH 1023.7
Standard 1 013.2 =
QNH 30.23 inches Standard 2 9.92 inche s
This graph calculates the maximum weight at which the aircraft can maintain the MINIMUM EN-ROUTE ALTITUDE in the event of an engine failure.
Enter with the Outside Air Temperature at the Minimum Enroute Altitude and move vertically to that altitude. Then move horizontally to the reference line that is standard pressure 29.92 inches of mercury. Move down the slope if pressure is lower than standard, or up the slope if pressure is higher. Then move horizontally to read off the MAXIMUM ENROUTE WEIGHT. Max En-Route Weight In Class Example
1. If the OAT is +2°C the min en-route altitude is 19 600ft and the QNH is 1010hpa what is the max en-route weight to maintain this level on one engine?
2. If the OAT is ISA +5°C, and the altitude is FL210, the QNH is 995hpa what is the max en-route weight?
3. If the OAT is –28°C, the altitude is FL150 and the QNH is 996hpa what is the max en-route weight?
RANGE PROFILE GRAPH 5 - 96
Enter with Flight Level, move horizontally to the relevant cruise power, extract TAS, move vertically to the range in Nautical Miles in Zero Wind or SAD (Still Air Distance).
Example:
The range of the EE-20 aircraft at FL 280 (Recommended Cruise Power) with a 35 Kt Headwind is :-
FL 280 TAS 272 at Recommended Cruise Power Range 1095 nm in Still Air TAS 272 Still Air Distance 1095 nm Time 4.0257 Hours
WC 35 Kt Headwind
ENDURANCE PROFILE GRAPH 5 - 97
The Endurance is expressed in Hours and decimals of an Hour. 4.2 Hours = 4 Hours 12 minutes
RECOMMENDED CRUISE POWER GRAPH 5 – 59 &
FUEL FLOW AT RECOMMENDED CRUISE POWER GRAPH 5 - 60
The graphs are similar and are entered with INDICATED OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE, that is the temperature as read off the temperature gauge in the aircraft which is affected by compressibility error, it OVERREADS.
If IOAT (Indicated Outside Air Temperature) is given, enter the graph with the IOAT, move vertically to the FL, then horizontally to the Torque Setting or the Fuel Flow.
If OAT (OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE) is given, it is the true temperature (IOAT corrected for compressibility) and must be converted to a Temperature Deviation from ISA before the graph can be entered.
Example
At FL 240 the OAT is -21°C, the Temperature Deviation from ISA is ISA at Sea Level +15°C
FL 240 x 2°/1000 ft - 48°C (colder than sea level) ISA at FL 240 - 33°C
OAT at FL 240 - 21°C Temperature Deviation ISA +12°C
Enter the graphs with FL and ISA Temperature Deviation (diagonal lines, top right to bottom left) and move horizontally to Torque Setting or Fuel Flow.
DISTANCE FLOWN PER UNIT OF FUEL USED OR FUEL USED FOR DISTANCE FLOWN
TAS (true airspeed) TAS 240 Kts
In one hour an aircraft will fly 240 AIR NAUTICAL MILES (ANM)
SAD (still air distance) TAS 240 Kts
In one hour an aircraft flies a STILL AIR DISTANCE (SAD) of 240 nm
FUEL FLOW (FF) The amount of fuel (Kilograms or Pounds) used in one hour. Given: TAS 240 Kts Fuel Flow 750 Lbs/Hour
Then aircraft performance is TAS 240 Kt s
Fuel Flow 750 Lbs / Hour = 0.32 ANM / LB
OR
Fuel Flow 750 Lbs / Hour
TAS 240 Kt s = 3.125 L B / ANM
ANM/LB can be converted to LB/ANM on an electronic calculator by using the 1/X function.
WIND COMPONENT (WC)
Wind component is the difference between TAS and GROUNDSPEED (GS). TAS 240 Kts WC -30 HW (Headwind) GS 210 Kts
TAS 240 Kts WC +30 TW (Tailwind) GS 270 Kts GS GS 270 Kts In one hour an aircraft flies 270 GNM
Given: TAS 240 Kts WC +30 Kts TW GS 270 Kts Fuel Flow 750 Lbs/Hour Then aircraft performance is GS 270 Kts
Fuel Flow 750 Lbs / Hour = 0.36 GNM / LB
OR
Fuel Flow 750 Lbs / Hour
GS 270 Kts = 2.7778 LB / GNM
When compiling a flight plan the most economical Flight Level should be selected by comparing LBS/GNM or GNM/LB.
THE MOST EFFICIENT FLIGHT LEVEL IS :
The littlest of the bigger numbers Or The biggest of the little numbers
Example 1.
FL 180 TAS 276 Kts WC -20 HW FF 716 LB/Hour FL 220 TAS 271 Kts WC -40 HW FF 622 LB/Hour FL 260 TAS 262 Kts WC -60 HW FF 534 LB/Hour The most economical FL is
:-Example 2.
An aircraft at FL 350, TAS 232 Kts, Fuel Flow 545 LBS/Hour has a performance of 0.355 GNM/LB.
The Wind Component affecting the aircraft is
:-Example 3.
An aircraft flying at FL 310 at TAS 494 Kts obtains a performance of 46.06 ANM/1000 Kgs in Zero Wind conditions. At FL 350 the TAS is 484 Kts and the performance is 48.36 ANM/1000 Kgs. It will be less economical to cruise at FL 350 if the Head Wind component is greater
than:-Ans. TAS 484kts GS
48.36 anm/1000kg x 46.06gnm/1000kgs = 461kts GS Therefore if TAS 484kts, GS 461kts, it’s a 23kt HW
If you are confused by the objective of this formula then work backwards through it by using a headwind of, say, 39kts.In doing so you will derive a poorer performance figure for FL 350. From an operational point of view you would then have to revert back to your original flight level at FL 310. What is the performance figure for FL 350 if the headwind should increase to the new value of 39kts?
ONE ENGINE INOP TABLES CLIMBING
Can the aircraft climb under the present weight and atmospheric conditions should be considered prior to any flight. Use graph 5-46 to find out if you can climb on one engine. To Use the graph you need:
1. OAT
2. Pressure altitude 3. Weight
4. Climb gradient required to overcome the obstacles.
Example 1
An aircraft has a weight of 11 500lbs, and is taking off from an airport that has a pressure height of 4500ft and an OAT of +25°C, what is the rate of climb on one engine and the climb gradient achieved?
Example 2
An aircraft is at FL200, the OAT is -10°C and the aircraft weight is 12 250lbs, what is the ROC?
SERVICE CEILING ONE ENGINE
Here you are asking yourself can you maintain altitude to remain whether airspace restrictions, or to maintain the Lowest Route Altitude. To answer this, use graph 5-47.
Example 1
An aircraft is at FL180 and suffers an engine failure, the weight at the time is 10 500lbs, and the OAT is -22°C. Can the aircraft maintain this FL, if not what is the Flight Level that the aircraft can maintain at this weight and temperature?
Example 2
An aircraft has a MZW of 11000lbs and the forecast temperature at the Lowest Sector Altitude is -5°C, and due to forecast icing the ice vanes must be extended. What is the service ceiling of the aircraft on one engine?
MAX CRUISE POWER ON ONE ENGINE
To make sure you don’t blow up an engine, there is a table on 5-99 onwards to attain the maximum cruise power setting when on one engine. NOTE the tables are differentiated by the ISA deviation.
Example 1
An aircraft is cruising on one engine at FL100, the OAT is +15°C the aircraft weight is 11 000lbs, what is the maximum cruise power setting?
Example 2
An aircraft is at FL140, the OAT is -23°C the aircraft weight is 10 500lbs, the ice vanes are extended, what is the maximum cruise power setting on the live engine and the fuel flow?
CRUISE POWER SETTINGS
Power setting in a King Air 200 is not automatic, there are tables to attain the correct power setting. The graphs to use are located on pages 5-51 onwards and like all power setting tables differentiate with ISA deviation.
Example 1
An aircraft is to cruise at FL 220, the OAT is –19°C the weight is 11 000lbs, what is the power setting, fuel flow total and TAS?
Example 2
An aircraft is to cruise at FL180, the EMZW is 10 500lbs, the following sector forecast is given, what is the power setting, fuel flow total and TAS? (using graphs 5-52 & 5-53)
24 300 60 -24 21 295 60 -25 18 300 55 -24 15 300 55 -12 10 310 50 -1
DESCENT PLANNING
TIME - FUEL - DISTANCE TO DESCEND GRAPH 5 - 109
Similar to the Climb Graph
1. An aircraft is to descend at Mmo, from FL245 to a sea level aerodrome what is the Time, Distance and Fuel that would be used?
2. An aircraft is planning a descent from FL180 to arrive in the circuit area 1000ft agl, over its destination aerodrome that is 3560ft amsl, what will be the time, fuel and distance for this descent?
3. An aircraft is required, due to traffic, to descend overhead Kathmandu, it is currently at FL280, and is required to descend to FL145 to maintain separation. How many NM and minutes before Kathmandu must the descent be started and how much fuel can be expected to be consumed?
FUEL
Remember the quantities the aircraft can carry:
RESERVE FUEL
As per the EE20 manual reserve fuel is calculated as 45 minutes at the cruise fuel setting calculated at the weight at the end of the cruise, i.e. Top Of Descent (TOD) weight.
HOLDING FUEL
HOLDING TIME GRAPH 5 - 107
1 Hour Holding at 15 000 ft = 420 Lbs of Fuel
If ICE VANES EXTENDED then holding time reduced by 15 %
Example 1 420 Lbs of Fuel = 60 mins Ice Vanes Retracted
15 % reduction = 9 mins
420 Lbs of Fuel = 51 mins Ice Vanes Extended Example 2 Fuel for 1 Hour Holding with Ice Vanes Extended ?
1 Hour = 420 Lbs = 85 % Then 100 % = 420 Lbs
0.85 = 494 Lbs of Fuel
Check 494 Lbs - 15% (74 Lbs) = 420 Lbs
Further examples
1. An aircraft has the ice vanes retracted and is told it is expected to hold for 75 minutes for a slot time to land, the hold will be conducted at FL130, how much fuel will be consumed?
2. An aircraft is in IMC and has the Ice vanes extended and is placed in a holding pattern at FL200, the aircraft has 420lbs available for holding, how long can it remains in this holding pattern?
3. An aircraft is expected to hold to await the opening of an airport which occurs at first light (0320UTC), the aircraft is expected to arrive at the intersection it will hold at, at 0715 LMT (UTC +6), how much fuel will be consumed during the hold at 5000ft?
LANDING
LANDING DISTANCE FLAPS 100 % GRAPH 5 – 110
LANDING DISTANCE FLAPS 100 % PROPELLER REVERSING
GRAPH 5 - 112
Both graphs give landing performance and are similar to the take-off graphs.
LANDING DISTANCE FLAPS 0 % PROPELLER REVERSING
GRAPH 5 - 113
Landing with full (100 %) flap is normal procedure, but it may be necessary to land with flaps up (0 %).
To determine the flaps up landing distance, use graph 5-112 the landing distance with propeller reversing, flaps 100 %, then enter graph 5-113 with this distance and read of landing distance flaps up
EXAMPLES
1. Find landing distance (both ground roll and over 50ft obstacle) under the following conditions:
Aerodrome elevation 2600ft amsl
QNH 1010hpa
Temp 22°C
Aircraft weight 11 200lbs Wind component 5kt HW
Props Reverse engaged
Flaps 100%
2. Find the landing distances for a landing under the following conditions: Aerodrome elevation 1220ft amsl
QNH 996hpa
Temp -15°C
Weight ….?
Wind comp 280/35
Runway 15/33
Props Reverse not allowed due runway surface
Flaps 100%
Runway length 1770m
3. Find the landing distance over a 50ft obstacle, and approach speed under the following conditions: Aerodrome elevation 2000ft QNH 1013 hpa Temp 40°C Weight 11 800lbs Wind comp 110/20 Runway 09/27
Props Reverse engaged
QUESTIONS
1. FL 220 TAS 267 Kts WC -20 Kts HW FF 592 LB/Hour FL 260 TAS 259 Kts WC -40 Kts HW FF 512 LB/Hour FL 310 TAS 232 Kts WC -60 Kts HW FF 422 LB/Hour The most economical FL is
:-(a) FL 220 (b) FL 260 (c) FL 310
2. An aircraft flying at FL 350 at TAS 495 Kts obtains a performance of 97.3 ANM/1000 Kgs in Zero Wind conditions.
At FL 390 the TAS is 474 Kts and the performance is 102.9 ANM/1000 kg.
It will be less economical to cruise at FL 390 if the Head Wind component is greater than
:-(a) 26 Kts HW (b) 36 Kts HW (c) 46 Kts HW
3. An aircraft at FL 310 has a TAS of 485 Kts and Fuel Flow of 11 750 Lbs/Hour.
If aircraft performance is 36.59 GNM/1000 Lb the Wind Component affecting the aircraft
is:-(a) 35 Kts HW (b) 45 Kts HW (c) 55 Kts HW
4. The following figures relate to a Flight Plan
SECTOR TAS WC GS DIST TIME A to TOC 300 -35 265 110 0 : 25 TOC to B 495 -52 443 318 0 : 43 B to C 488 -67 421 561 1 : 20 C to TOD 476 -88 388 672 1 : 44 TOD to D 300 -30 270 90 0 : 20 1751 4 : 32
5. FL 240 TAS 264 Kts WC +30 Kts TW FF 552 LB/Hour FL 280 TAS 253 Kts WC +40 Kts TW FF 476 LB/Hour FL 310 TAS 232 Kts WC +50 Kts TW FF 386 LB/Hour The most economical FL is
:-(a) FL 240 (b) FL 280 (c) FL 310
6. Airfield Pressure Altitude 5700ft, Temperature +30°C. According to graph 5-23 the Maximum Take-Off Weight is
:-(a) 12 500 Lbs (b) 12 200 Lbs (b) 11 900 Lbs
7. Airfield Pressure Altitude 6200ft, Temperature +25°C, According to graph 5-23 the Maximum Take-Off Weight is
:-(a) 12 500 Lbs (b) 12 300 Lbs (c) 12 100 Lbs
8. For a flight from A to B the Minimum Enroute Altitude is 20 000ft. The temperature at FL 200 is -15°C and the area QNH is 30.50 inches. The fuel used to the high ground is 450 Lbs.
The Maximum Take-Off Weight for the flight according to graph 5-24 is :-(a) 11 950 Lbs
(b) 12 150 Lbs (c) 12 400 Lbs
9. For a flight from C to D the Minimum Enroute Altitude is 19 000ft. The temperature at FL 190 is -11°C and the area QNH is 29.20 inches. If the fuel used to the high ground is 650 Lbs the Maximum Take-Off Weight for the flight (graph 5-24) is
:-(a) 11 900 Lbs (b) 12 200 Lbs (c) 12 500 Lbs
10. An obstacle 1400ft amsl is 5nm from reference zero of a runway whose elevation is 350ft. According to graph 5-28 the Minimum Climb Gradient required is
:-(a) 4.6% (b) 3.8% (c) 3.2%
11. Airfield Pressure Altitude 5000ft, Temperature 20°C. According to graph 5-31 the Minimum Take-Off Power required is
:-(a) 2060 Ft/Lbs (b) 2110 Ft/Lbs (c) 2160 Ft/Lbs
12. Airfield Pressure Altitude 3500ft, Temperature 26°C. According to graph 5-31 the Minimum Take-Off Power required is
:-(a) 2050 Ft/Lbs (b) 2100 Ft/Lbs (c) 2150 Ft/Lbs
13. Airfield Pressure Altitude 1000ft, Temperature 32°C. According to graph 5-31 the Minimum Take-Off Power required is
:-(a) 2060 Ft/Lbs (b) 2110 Ft/Lbs (c) 2165 Ft/Lbs
14. Airfield Pressure Altitude 5000ft, Temperature 15°C, Flaps 0%,. Take-Off Mass 11 000 Lbs, Wind Component 15 Kts Headwind. According to graph 5-34 the Take-Off Distance required is :- (a) 2000 ft
(b) 2850 ft (c) 3450 ft
15. Airfield Pressure Altitude 2000 ft, Temperature 24°C, Flaps 0%, Take-Off Weight 11 600 Lbs, Wind Component 5 Kts Tailwind. According to graph 5-34 the Take-Off Ground Roll is
:-(a) 2000 ft (b) 2300 ft (c) 3900 ft
16. A Take-Off is planned from a 4000 ft runway with 1500 ft of clearway available. Pressure Altitude 4500 ft, OAT 25°C, Headwind 12 Kts, Flaps 0%.
17. Airfield Pressure Altitude 4000ft, OAT 24°C, Aircraft Mass 11 500 Lbs. According to graph 5-37 the net gradient of climb is
:-(a) 3.4 % (b) 3.9 % (c) 4.4 %
18. Airfield Pressure Altitude 5000ft, OAT 26°C, Assuming that there is no runway limitation but a 3.2 % net gradient of climb is required, using graph 5-37
the Maximum Take-Off Mass is :-(a) 11 500 Lbs
(b) 12 100 Lbs (c) 12 500 Lbs
19. Airfield Pressure Altitude 4500ft, OAT 18°C, Flaps 40 %, 10 Kt Headwind, Take-Off Mass 11 100 Lbs.
According to graph 5-39 the Accelerate-Stop Distance is :-(a) 3700 ft
(b) 4000 ft (c) 4400 ft
20. Airfield Pressure Altitude 3000ft, Temperature 25°C, Wind Component 5Kt Tailwind, Take-Off Mass 11 400 Lbs.
According to graph 5-39 the Accelerate-Stop Distance is :-(a) 3800 ft
(b) 4000 ft (c) 4300 ft
21. A Take-Off is planned from a 4500 ft runway with 2000 ft of clearway available. Pressure Altitude 5000 ft, OAT 23°C, Headwind 15 Kt, Flaps 40 %.
Using graph 5-40 the Maximum Mass for which this Accelerate-Go distance can be used is
:-(a) 11 100 Lbs (b) 11 600 Lbs
(c) 12 100 Lbs
22.
Climbing from 4500ft, OAT +30°C to FL 290, OAT -23°C,
Take-Off Mass 12 500 Lbs.
According to graph 5-45 the Time, Fuel used and Distance flown are :-(a) 27 minutes 258 Lbs 90 nm
(b) 24 minutes 285 Lbs 80 nm (c) 27 minutes 285 Lbs 90 nm
23. Climbing from 5500ft, OAT 24°C to FL 280, OAT -32°C, Take-Off Mass 12 000 Lbs. According to graph 5-45 the Time, Fuel used and Distance flown are
:-(a) 18 minutes 202 Lbs 59 nm (b) 19 minutes 230 Lbs 58 nm (c) 18 minutes 242 Lbs 60 nm
24. Climbing from 4000ft, OAT 26°C to FL 260, OAT -24°C, Take-Off Mass 12 500 Lbs.
According to graph 5-45 the mean TAS on the climb is :-(a) 160 Kts
(b) 190 Kts (c) 225 Kts
25. The temperature at the Minimum Enroute Altitude is -27°C. If the aircraft mass is 11 700 Lbs the Service Ceiling according to graph 5-47 is
:-(a) 19 000 ft (b) 21 000 ft (c) 23 000 ft
26. Cruising at FL 260, Indicated OAT -25°C, the recommended cruise power according to graph 5-59 is
:-(a) 1450 Ft/Lbs (b) 1500 Ft/Lbs (c) 1550 Ft/Lbs
27. Cruising at FL 270, OAT -24°C, the recommended cruise power according to graph 5-59
is:-(a) 1420 Ft/Lbs (b) 1370 Ft/Lbs (c) 1320 Ft/Lbs
28. Cruising at FL 230, OAT -23°C, the recommended cruise power according to graph 5-59
is:-(a) 1730 Ft/Lbs (b) 1780 Ft/Lbs (c) 1675 Ft/Lbs
30. Cruising at FL 250, Temperature ISA +10°C, the Fuel Flow according to graph 5-60 is
:-(a) 556 Lbs/hour (b) 565 Lbs/hour (c) 656 Lbs/hour
31. Cruising at FL 270, OAT -24°C, the Fuel Flow per engine according to graph 5-60 (a) 285 Lbs/hour
(b) 258 Lbs/hour (c) 252 Lbs/hour
32. Enroute from WPT 2 to WPT 3 at FL 190, Temperature ISA +20°C, Distance 247 nm, 35 Kts Headwind, Aircraft Mass 11 000 Lbs.
The fuel used for the sector according to table 5-55 is (a) 678 Lbs
(b) 694 Lbs (c) 717 Lbs
33. Enroute from WPT 3 to WPT 4 at FL 270, Temperature ISA +10°C, Distance 329 nm, 25 Kts Tailwind, Aircraft Mass 11 500 Lbs.
The fuel used on this sector according to table 5-54 is (a) 567 Lbs
(b) 589 Lbs (c) 615 Lbs
34. Enroute from WPT 4 to WPT 5 at FL 200, Temperature ISA +15°C, Distance 450 nm, 30 Kts Headwind, Aircraft Mass 11 000 Lbs.
The fuel used on the sector according to tables 5-54 and 5-55 is (a) 1147 Lbs
(b) 1172 Lbs (c) 1194 Lbs
35. Enroute from WPT 5 to WPT 6 at FL 190, Temperature ISA +10°C, Distance 212 nm, 25 Kts Tailwind, Aircraft Mass 10 500 Lbs.
The fuel used on the sector according to table 5-90 is :-(a) 358 Lbs
(b) 387 Lbs (c) 405 Lbs
36. The range of the EE-20 aeroplane at FL 240 with a 35 Kt Headwind flying at the recommended cruise power (graph 5-96)
(a) 852 nm (b) 909 nm (c) 975 nm
37. The range of the EE-20 aeroplane at FL 280 with a 40 Kt Tailwind flying at the recommended cruise power (graph 5-96)
(a) 1090 nm (b) 1175 nm (c) 1250 nm
38. The range of the EE-20 aeroplane at FL 260 with a 25 Kt Headwind flying at the recommended cruise power (graph 5-96)
(a) 942 nm (b) 985 nm
(c) 1035 nm
39. The endurance of the EE-20 aeroplane at FL 240 flying at the recommended cruise power (graph 5-97)
(a) 3 hours 39 mins (b) 3 hours 48 mins (c) 3 hours 57 mins
40. The endurance of the EE-20 aeroplane at FL 290 flying at maximum cruise power graph 5-97 is
(a) 4 hours 12 mins (b) 4 hours 20 mins (c) 4 hours 29 mins
41. For a landing at an airfield at sea level (QNH 1009.2) the pressurization controller setting for landing (graph 5-106)
(a) 0ft (b) 300ft (c) 600ft
43. 400 Lbs of fuel is available for holding at FL 150. If the ice vanes are extended the holding time according to graph 5-107
(a) 0.52 mins (b) 31 mins (c) 52 mins
44. The fuel required for 45 minutes holding at FL 150 with the ice vanes extended (graph 5-107) is
(a) 305 Lbs (b) 335 Lbs (c) 365 Lbs
45. Pressure Altitude 3000ft, OAT 25°C, Aircraft mass 10 200 Lbs. The landing distance with a 14 Kt Headwind (graph 5-112) is (a) 1050ft
(b) 1450t (c) 1900ft (d)
46. Pressure Altitude 5500ft, OAT 29°C, Aircraft mass 10 200 Lbs.
The landing ground roll with a 5 Kt Tailwind and 100% flap (graph 5-112) (a) 1200ft
(b) 1400ft (c) 1600t
47. Pressure Altitude 5500ft, OAT 29°C, Aircraft mass 10 200 Lbs. The landing distance with zero flap, propeller reversing and a 5 Kt Tailwind (graphs 5-112 and 5-113) (a) 1900ft
(b) 2600ft (c) 3200ft
48. An obstacle 1200 ft amsl is 3nm from reference zero of a runway whose elevation is 600ft. According to graph 5-28 the Minimum Climb Gradient required
(a) 3.1% (b) 4.7% (c) 6.4%
49. An obstacle 240 ft above runway elevation is 1700 metres from reference zero. According to graph 5-28 the minimum Climb gradient required
(a) 2.9% (b) 3.7% (c) 4.6%
CHAPTER 5
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT SCHEDULE
In the process of compiling a flight plan for an aircraft, the weight schedule must be consulted to ensure that certain weight limitations are not exceeded. In later chapters, balance limitations (location of the C of G) will also be considered. The weight schedule given below is the ideal and complete one, although certain operators may elect to combine items in order to abbreviate the process.
AIRCRAFT EMPTY WEIGHT (AEW) + OIL AND UNUSABLE FUEL = BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT (BEW) + CREW AND CATERING
= OPERATING EMPTY WEIGHT (OEW) + PAYLOAD
= ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (ZFW) + TOTAL FUEL
= RAMP OR TAXI WEIGHT - TAXI FUEL
= TAKE OFF WEIGHT
- TRIP FUEL OR BURN OFF = LANDING WEIGHT
AIRCRAFT EMPTY WEIGHT (AEW)
Consists of the airframe, engines, and all items of operating equipment that have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the aircraft.
OIL AND UNUSABLE FUEL
This includes engine oil, hydraulic fluid and undrainable fuel (Piper Cherokee 2 Galls, B-747 1600 Kg)
BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT (BEW)
The Empty Weight of the aircraft plus oil, hydraulic fluid and unusable fuel.
CREW AND CATERING
Operating crew, cabin staff and catering.
OPERATING EMPTY WEIGHT (OEW)
The weight of the aircraft, including the crew, ready for flight but without payload and fuel.
MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (MZFW)
The maximum weight authorized for the aircraft not including the fuel load. Zero fuel weight is the operating empty weight (OEW) plus the payload.
MAXIMUM RAMP WEIGHT
The maximum structural take-off weight plus the fuel to be burned during taxi and run-up.
MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT (MTOW)
The maximum structural weight at the start of the take-off run. The take-off weight for a particular flight may be limited to a lesser weight when runway length, atmospheric conditions, or other variables are adverse.
TRIP FUEL OR BURN OFF
The fuel used from the point of departure to the destination. Reserve fuel is not included in the trip fuel and the entire fuel reserves are expected to be on board the aircraft at the point of first intended landing.
MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT
The maximum structural weight at which an aircraft may normally be landed. The landing weight may be limited to a lesser weight when runway length or atmospheric conditions are adverse.
CALCULATION OF MAXIMUM PAYLOAD
Assuming that there are no airfield restrictions, the maximum payload that may be carried on a flight will be limited by
:-MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT
Example:
Max Ramp weight 89 700kg Basic Weight 47 000kg Max Brakes release weight 89 350kg Max Landing weight 72 600kg Max Zero Fuel weight 63 500kg Trip fuel 12 462kg Reserve fuel 4 680kg The Maximum Payload
is:-Least of 3 method
Find the least of: Max Take off weight
Max Landing weight + Flight Fuel Max Zero Fuel Weight +Fuel on board
Step 1
Calculate fuel at Brakes release…. Trip fuel 12 462kg Reserve fuel 4680kg
FUEL ON BOARD 17 142kg
Step 2
Calculate the 3 limitations…..
MTOW 89 350kg
MLW+trip fuel 85 062kg (72600+12462) MZFW+fob 80 642kg (63500+17142) Step 3
NOW….
If it was the TOW that was found to be the lowest you would:
Max Take off weight - Fuel on board - Basic weight PAYLOAD
If it was the LW that was the limiting factor then:
Landing weight - Reserve fuel - Basic weight PAYLOAD
HUMIDITY
Humidity and air density are inversely proportional. The greater the humidity, the less the air density. Piston engine aircraft performance is adversely affected by humidity to the extent where maximum take-off weight may be limited. The effect of humidity on jet engine performance, however, is negligible.
FLAPS
The effect of flaps on maximum take-off weight varies from aircraft to aircraft and from flap setting to flap setting. Factors to be considered are not only the effect of flaps on the take-off run, but also on the initial climb performance after take-off. A definitive answer on the effect of flaps on an aircraft's maximum take-off weight would be extracted from the appropriate performance graphs.
In conclusion, all of the above mentioned factors may limit an aircraft's maximum take-off weight and it is the most limiting case, which will determine the aircraft's actual take-off weight.
MAXIMUM FLOOR LOAD
Maximum floor load is an indication of the physical bearing strength of the aircraft's floor, normally in the cargo or baggage area. It is an expression of the maximum weight that can be borne per surface area. Because maximum floor load is derived by weight per area, the height of any object to be loaded is of no consequence. In most load calculations, the maximum floor load of the aircraft is given. The pilot must calculate the area of the object to be loaded and its weight, to check whether it may be loaded. To calculate the area of a rectangular or square object, use the formula:
AREA = LENGTH x BREADTH
To calculate the area of a circular object, for example a barrel, use the formula:
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (SG)
Specific gravity is a method of converting a volume of liquid to a weight of liquid or vice versa.
The formula for specific gravity is: VOLUME x SG = WEIGHT
The standard used for specific gravity is water (SG 1) 1 litre of water has a weight of 1 Kg.
1 Imperial Gallon of water has a weight of 10 lbs. If the SG of fuel is 0.82
then:-1 litre of fuel has a weight of 0.82 Kg
1 Imperial Gallon of fuel has a weight of 8.2 Lbs Specific Gravity cannot be applied directly to US Gallons.
NOTE: US Gallons must be converted to Litres or Imperial Gallons before Specific Gravity can be applied.
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Specific weight serves much the same function as specific gravity but applies to US Gallons only. It is a statement (Specific Weight 6.6 Lbs) and means that 1 US Gallon of fuel weighs 6.6 Lbs
EXAMPLE :
The specific weight of fuel is 6.6 Lbs per US gallon. How much does 450 US gallons of fuel weigh?
450 US gal x 6.6 = 2970 Lbs
BALANCE, CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Balance refers to the location of the CG (Centre of Gravity) of an aircraft. It is of primary importance to aircraft stability and safety in flight. Pilots should never fly an aircraft if they are not satisfied with its loading and the resulting weight and balance conditions. The CG is the point about which an aircraft would balance if it were possible to support the aircraft at that point. It is the mass centre of the aircraft, or the theoretical point at which the entire weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated. The CG must be within specific limits for safe flight.
40 inches 40 inches
15 Lbs 15 Lbs Fulcrum (CG)
In the above sketch two weights of 15 Lbs each are 40 inches from the fulcrum. The weights are balanced. Mathematically 15 Lbs x 40 inches = 600 inch/Lbs on each side.
WEIGHT x ARM = MOMENT 15 Lbs x 40 inches = 600 inch/Lbs REFERENCE DATUM
Every aircraft has a reference datum and it varies from aircraft type to aircraft type. Usually it is at or near the nose of the aircraft. It is the datum from which all horizontal distances are measured.
ARM
Arm is the horizontal distance (usually in inches) from the reference datum to the location of an object or position in the aircraft. Other terms are STATION (STA), FLIGHT STATION
(FS) or CENTROID, e.g. Forward Hold at FS 220 means the Forward Hold is 220 inches
aft of the datum.
MOMENT
Moment is the product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm.
MOMENT INDEX or REDUCTION FACTOR
Moment Index or Reduction Factor is a moment divided by a constant such as 100, 1 000 or 10 000. The purpose of using a moment index or reduction factor is to simplify weight and balance computations of large aircraft where heavy items and long arms result in large, unmanageable numbers
In class example using the graphs at the end of the EE-20 manual. EXAMPLE 1 Aircraft load: EW 8087lbs 15041.00 IU Pilot + Co-pilot 165kg Passenger weights 65,86,95,112,45kg Baggage weight 89kg
Catering on board 45kg in foyer cabinet Fuel on board at s/up 300usg (6.6SW) Flight fuel 185usg
Find
a. TOW and position of CoG b. ZFW and position of CoG
STEP 1
Complete the table, loading front to rear…UNTIL you get to ZFW, then check it is in balance.
ITEM
Weight
Arm
Index Units/100EW 8087 15041.00 CREW 363 129.0 468.27 ROW 1 455 176.0 800.80 ROW 2 332 215.0 713.8 ROW 3 99 259.0 256.41 LAV SEAT 292 AFT CABIN 196 325 637.00 CABINET (Foyer) 99 284 281.16 ZFW(10400 MAX) 9631 18198.44 FUEL TOW(12500 MAX)
STEP 2
Now add the fuel to check the weight and CoG at TOW…
ITEM
Weight
Arm
Index Units/100
EW 8087 15041.00 CREW 363 129.0 468.27 ROW 1 455 176.0 800.80 ROW 2 332 215.0 713.8 ROW 3 99 259.0 256.41 LAV SEAT 292 AFT CABIN 196 325 637.00 CABINET (Foyer) 99 284 281.16 ZFW(10400 MAX) 9631 18198.44 FUEL 1980 3631 TOW(12500 MAX) 11611 21829.44 IN CLASS EXERCISES
Basic loading problems
1. Complete the load sheet ignoring CoG limitations for the following load find the CoG position for take off, and zero fuel weight (ignoring any limits):
EW 7900lbs Moment 14950 Pilots 155kg Pax 88,45,75,77kg Baggage 132kg Catering 15kg (aft) FOB 335usg (6.7 SW)
2. Complete the load sheet and determine if the aircraft is in CoG at Take off.. EW 8122lbs Moment 15950
Pilots 175kg
Pax 99,65,55,88,45,75,77kg Baggage 185kg
FOB 435usg (6.4 SW) This can also be done graphically
CALCULATION OF LANDING CG
The moment of the TRIP FUEL or BURN OFF cannot be read from the table directly as the arm of the fuel varies as the amount of the fuel in the tanks. The moment of the Trip Fuel can be calculated by subtracting the moment of the Landing Fuel from the moment of the Take-Off Fuel. A Load Sheet is not available in the exam and it is suggested that the following method be used.
NOTE: The moment of the fuel is given as MOMENT 100 which means the figure must be
multiplied by 100 to give the full figure. 1. Start with the Take-Off condition of the aircraft. 2. Subtract the Take-Off Fuel weight and moment. 3. Add the Landing Fuel weight and moment. 4. Calculate the Landing CG.
Example:
Take-Off Weight 12 500 Lbs,Take-Off Fuel 530 US Gallons (SW 6.6 Lbs/US G) Take-Off CG 191.3 inches Trip Fuel 300 US Gallons
WEIGHT ARM MOMENT Take-Off 12 500 191.3 2 391 250 Take-Off Fuel (530 Gallons) -3 498 - 664 300 Landing Fuel (530 - 300 Gallons) +1 518 + 277 000
Landing 10 520 190.5 2 003 950
Further examples
1. Find the landing CoG position from the following: Take off weight 12 223 lbs CoG arm at take off 193.2 inches Fuel on board at T/off 544usg Flight fuel 201usg
Fuel SW 6.7
2. Find the landing CoG position from the following: Take off weight 9800lbs Moment index at t/off 15550 Fuel on board at take off 350usg
MOVING CG
IF the CG is too far aft the pilot can…
1. Redistribute the load forward of the current CG by moving pax, or shifting baggage 2. Add ballast forward
3. Remove weight aft
IF the CG is too far forward, the pilot can…. 1. Redistribute the load toward the rear 2. Add ballast aft
3. Remove weight forward
Weight to be shifted formula
Adding ballast formula
Weight to be shifted = GW x (difference between desired CG & original CG) Distance between the 2 stations
Ballast to add = Original GW x (difference between desired CG & actual CG)
CALCULATING CG POSITION AS A PERCENTAGE MAC
To find the position that the Cg is acting in reference to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord we use the following formula to calculate % MAC….
CG position as a % MAC = distance aft of MAC leading edge x 100 MAC 1 REFER PAGE 6-5 of the EE-20 manual for MAC figures.
Example 1
The Cg from the load sheet is found to be 192 inches aft of the datum (24000 x 100 ÷12500) Step 1.
192 inches = (192 – 171.23”) 20.77” aft of the MAC leading edge The position expressed as a % MAC is:
% MAC = 20.77” x 100 70.41
% MAC = 29.49% MAC Example 2
The aircraft is found to be at 12 000lbs and the moment is 23100units, find the CG position as a % MAC.
Example 3
An aircraft is loaded so that its weight is 10 200lbs and the moment is 22222 units, find the CG position as a % MAC..
QUESTION SET ONE
1. Maximum Take-Off Mass 151 500 Kg Maximum Landing Mass 112 000 Kg Maximum Zero Fuel Mass 101 200 Kg Operational Empty Mass 69 700 Kg Trip Fuel 40 150 Kg Reserve Fuel 8 200 Kg The maximum payload that may be carried is :-(a) 31 500 Kg
(b) 33 450 Kg (c) 35 250 Kg
2. Maximum Take-Off Mass 151 500 Kg Maximum Landing Mass 97 500 Kg Maximum Zero Fuel Mass 88 450 Kg Operational Empty Mass 66 700 Kg Trip Fuel 44 500 Kg Reserve Fuel 7 100 Kg
If the maximum payload is carried the Take-Off Weight is :-(a) 142 000 Kg
(b) 140 050 Kg (c) 151 000 Kg
3. Maximum Take-Off Mass 151 500 Kg Maximum Landing Mass 107 000 Kg Maximum Zero Fuel Mass 96 300 Kg Operational Empty Mass 64 250 Kg Distance A to B 2 850 nm Groundspeed 490 Kts Fuel Flow 7 350 Kg/hour Reserve Fuel 15% of Trip Fuel The maximum payload that may be carried on this flight is
:-(a) 44 500 Kg (b) 36 337 Kg (c) 32 050 Kg
4. Maximum Take-Off Mass 151 500 Kg Maximum Landing Mass 97 500 Kg Maximum Zero Fuel Mass 88 450 Kg Operational Empty Mass 66 870 Kg Trip Fuel 45 300 Kg Reserve Fuel 12 240 Kg The maximum payload that may be carried is :-(a) 18 390 Kg
(b) 17 280 Kg (c) 16 920 Kg
5. The mass of 729 US Gallons of fuel at SG 0.78 is :-(a) 2153 Kg
(b) 2579 Kg (c) 3095 Kg
6. If 1250 Lbs of fuel at SG 0.812 are on board an aircraft, the amount of fuel in US Gallons
is:-(a) 128 US Gallons (b) 185 US Gallons (c) 122 US Gallons
7. The weight of 867 US Gallons of fuel (SG 0.78) is :-(a) 8122 Lbs
(b) 6253 Lbs (c) 5631 Lbs
8. The weight of 1292 Litres of fuel (SG 0.812) is :-(a) 2313 Lbs
(b) 2846 Lbs (c) 3508 Lbs
9. If 567 Kgs of fuel at SG 0.812 are on board an aircraft, the amount of fuel in US gallons is
:-(a) 161 US Gallons (b) 184 US Gallons (c) 201 US Gallons
10. An IFR flight is to be made from A to C with a stop at B. There is no fuel available at B.
A to B B to C Trip Fuel 2670 Kg 2295 Kg Alternate Fuel 1040 Kg 995 Kg Holding Fuel 620 Kg 620 Kg The minimum fuel required at Take-Off from A
is:-(a) 6580 Kg (b) 7620 Kg
QUESTION SET TWO
1. The weights measured at the landing gear of an aircraft are as follows:-Nose wheel (55 inches aft of datum) 475 Lbs
Right main wheel (121 inches aft of datum 1046 Lbs Left main wheel (121 inches aft of datum) 1040 Lbs The C of G of the aircraft is
(a) 104.6 inches (b) 106.4 inches (c) 108.8 inches
2. The C of G of an aircraft is 980 inches aft of datum at an all up mass of 170 500 Lbs. If 800 Lbs of baggage is moved from FS 1130 to FS 430 the new C of G will be :-(a) 975.99 inches
(b) 976.72 inches (c) 977.62 inches
3. Aircraft Mass 12 000 Lbs
C of G 193 inches aft of datum Aft C of G limit 196.3 inches aft of datum
The maximum mass that can be loaded at FS 325 without exceeding the aft C of G limit is
:-(a) 307 Lbs (b) 342 Lbs (c) 386 Lbs
4. A pallet 83 inches by 95 inches is to be loaded in a cargo aircraft. The floor load limit of the aircraft is 169 Lbs per square foot.
If the pallet mass is 88 Lbs and the tie down equipment is 37 Lbs the amount of freight that may be loaded on the pallet is
(a) 9128 Lbs (b) 9156 Lbs (c) 9244 Lbs
5. A pallet 76 inches by 76 inches is to be loaded in a cargo aircraft. The floor load limit of the aircraft is 184 Lbs per square foot. If the pallet mass is 85 Lbs and the tie down equipment is 36 Lbs the amount of freight that may be loaded on the pallet is
(a) 7499 Lbs (b) 7378 Lbs (c) 7259 Lbs
6. The C of G of an aircraft is 1000 inches aft of datum at an all up mass of 155 000 Lbs If 1000 Lbs of baggage is moved from FS 1166 to FS 670 the new C of G will be
:-(a) 996.8 inches (b) 997.5 inches (c) 998.3 inches
7. Aircraft Basic Empty Mass 8000 Lbs
C of G 185 inches aft of datum Standard adult mass 170 Lbs
2 Pilots FS 129 2 Adult Pax FS 176 2 Adult Pax FS 215 1 Adult Pax FS 259 Baggage 250 Lbs FS 320
Fuel 440 US Gallons (SW 6.5 Lbs) Mom x 100 5337 Ignore Fuel for start and taxi
The C of G of the aircraft at Take-Off is :-(a) 186.7 inches
(b) 188.2 inches (c) 189.6 inches
8. Aircraft Basic Empty Mass 8000 Lbs
C of G 176 inches aft of datum Standard adult mass 170 Lbs
2 Pilots FS 129
2 Adult Pax FS 259 Baggage 340 Lbs FS 346.5
Fuel 480 US Gallons (SW 6.6 Lbs) Mom x 100 5956 Ignore Fuel for start and taxi
The C of G of the aircraft at Take-Off is :-(a) 183.78 inches
(b) 184.88 inches (c) 185.96 inches
9. Operational Empty Mass 66 600 Kg
CG 480 Inches
Standard Passenger Weight 75 Kg
Zone A FS 290 28 Passengers Zone B FS 480 42 Passengers Zone C FS 680 46 Passengers Hold 1 FS 200 1500 Kg Hold 2 FS 750 500 Kg Wing Tanks FS 490 41020 Kg Centre Tank FS 480 9080 Kg The CG of the aircraft at Take-Off is
:-(a) 483.27 inches (b) 484.68 inches (c) 485.73 inches
10. Operational Empty Mass 71 600 Kg
CG 480 Inches
Standard Passenger Weight 165lb
Zone A FS 290 25 Passengers Zone B FS 480 44 Passengers Zone C FS 680 49 Passengers Hold 1 FS 200 1750 Kg Hold 2 FS 750 800 Kg Wing Tanks FS 490 45820 Kg Centre Tank FS 480 9550 Kg The CG of the aircraft at Take-Off is
:-(a) 483.55 inches (b) 484.07 inches (c) 485.32 inches
11. Shortly before Take-Off, an extra passenger is given permission to board an aircraft. Before boarding aircraft weight was 11 200 Lbs, and the CG was 191 Inches. The passenger weight is 170 Lbs and is allocated a seat at FS 259.
The revised CG of the aircraft is :-(a) 192 inches
(b) 193 inches (c) 194 inches
