2 RELATED RESEARCH 1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 ADAPTIVE HYPERMEDIA
2.2.1 ADAPTIVE METHODS
2.2.3.8 ADAPTIVE VIBE
One of the more recent research output from the PAWS group [PAWS, 2011] (Personalized Adaptive Webs Systems) is the ‘Adaptive VIBE’ project [Ahn and Brusilovsky, 2009][Brusilovsky et al, 2006]. This uses a novel visualization approach to peruse spatially orientated reference points. Using this, the users can ‘see’ the relations between their own interests (which can be depicted through their user profile reference points) and the material on offer. If the educational material is closely related to their interests, then the reference point for that material appears closer to their areas of interest. This visualization technique is rather uncommon in AH systems but offers a very powerful navigation and indexing technique. 2.2.3.9 GALE In recent years, the rate of development of new AEH systems has slowed as the field has matured, with fewer separate areas being developed, but with more effort put into each. Two main areas of recent development have been in the expansion of extant LMSs such as Moodle, such as with APeLS
above [Tiarnaigh, 2005], with the second being in creating a single AEH built using the expertise gathered from previous efforts.
GALE (GRAPPLE Adaptive Learning Environment) is one such AEH system, produced as part of the GRAPPLE [Grapple, 2011] EU project, which brings experts in AEH development from across Europe. Whilst the types of adaptation remain those described by Brusilovsky, this is not the main focus of the GALE effort. As with the APeLS interaction with Moodle, the GALE system’s goal is to act as an adaptive interface for extant (and non adaptive) Learning Management Systems, such as Moodle [Moodle, 2011], Sakai [Sakai, 2011] IMS CLIX and Elex [GRAPPLE, 2009].
This integrative effort looks promising for the future. The advantage of integrating an AEH with the extant LMSs is that it is an ideal way to bring adaptive learning to the mass market. Moodle is one of the largest learning management systems in use around the world, with over 72,000 active sites [Moodle Sites, 2011], compared to the AEH community penetration which has barely spread beyond the academic community.
The way forward for AEH systems would seem to be tied up with non adaptive systems, and GALE is an example of this.
2.2.3.10 ADE
The Adaptive Display Environment (ADE)[ADE, 2011][Scotton and Cristea, 2010][Scotton et al, 2011] is an adaptation delivery engine using the LAOS framework for authoring and delivery of adaptive hypermedia (AH). It builds on existing delivery engines, by extending the adaptation behaviours that can be used in AH systems, as well as increasing the reusability of adaptation specifications and content.
ADE is designed to be a modular adaptive hypermedia system which supports multiple types of content formats and adaptation languages. It is based on the LAOS framework for AH systems, which enforces a strict separation between the content and adaptation specifications, using the CAF content format and the LAG adaptation language [Cristea 2007, 2009].
The CAF format stores adaptive content in a two layered content structure. The first layer, the Domain model, contains a conceptual hierarchy and the actual content of the course. The second layer, the Goal and constraints model, stores pedagogical information about the course contents and groups the concepts from the Domain model in “lessons”, which correspond to pages in an adaptive system.
Additionally to previous adaptive delivery systems, ADE has a compiler module, which can compile, in principle, any adaptation language, into an internal representation format. Also, ADE has preview functionality, a self explanatory user interface, the possibility to display external variables, and, due to a modular structure, a great variety in allowing for adaptation types beyond the Brusilovsky taxonomy (e.g., adaptation to bandwidth [Hava Muntean et al, 2007] or device, to name but a few).
2.2.3.11 WHICH AEH?
As can be seen from the above sample of AEH systems, there has been a wide ranging research effort over the last decade and a half expanding into areas that initially were not considered part of the traditional AEH remit. However, with the expansion, acceptance and desire for personalisation in online systems (be they educational or not, for example a system like Amazon [Amazon, 2011] is incorporating adaptive collaborative filtering) AEH systems have continued to expand their research horizons until they are now approaching the stage where they could break out of their traditional academic environments. Hence ADE was the chosen [Scotton 2010, 2011] AEH system, as it has the potential to be of wide ranging use, allowing the implementation of standard adaptive techniques (such as presentation and navigation), but also moving into areas that current research has barely scratched the surface of, such as adaptive user interfaces. In implementing the results from this thesis, this flexibility was of great importance. It should be noted that another advantage was the close connection between this authors research endeavours and those of the ADE creator. The ADE implementation efforts are not part of this thesis as they were contributed by colleagues but my research findings were pivotal in the design criteria of
the later developments of the ADE system. This close research effort between the research detailed in this thesis and the ADE design has allowed the collaborative creation of a novel expansion to ADE. The results of this collaboration are discussed and presented in Chapter 7. 2.3 CULTURE AND ELEARNING As described earlier, there has been a great deal of research effort involved in the relatively new field of AH and AEH, but little of this has focused on the learner’s cultural background, with few exceptions. One of them is the ALEKS system [Doignon and Falmagne, 1999]), which focuses more on a culture as a collection of specific weights and measures, language and idioms, rather than a more global approach to understanding the underlying learning preferences.
There have also been several projects concerning ‘eCulture’ (such as [DigiCULT, 2003] and [CHIP, 2008]), but these are focused on the field of cultural heritage, specifically the gathering, storage, tagging and dissemination of cultural information (e.g., museum data). Using a learner’s cultural background as part of an AEH user model has yet to be investigated by this community.
In other areas, culture has been considered as a vital part of the development cycle, with the development of internationalisation [Internationalization, 2011] and localisation as growing areas in software development [Sun, 2008][Chan, 2006]. Knowing who your user is, is vital, and their cultural history is an important aspect of that background.
Culture is a complex and broad concept, which can be defined in many ways. Most researchers agree that culture involves at least three components: what people think, what they do, and the material products they produce [Boldley, 2004]. Culture is shared among society members consciously and unconsciously, shapes, values, assumptions, perceptions and behaviours of its members. Research [Xu, 1991][Morrison et al, 2005] in e learning systems has shown that cultural influences, among others, have a significant impact on a learner’s ability. Some of the important attributes affecting cultures are identified, such as, emotion, learner preference for individual or collective work, anxiety and reward allocation.
Even such simple factors such as colour may have a significant effect on a student’s user experience. [Barber and Badre, 1998] created a colour meaning chart (Table 2.1) to help guide website design.
Colour China Japan Egypt France United States
Red Happiness Anger Danger
Death Aristocracy Danger Stop Blue Heavens Clouds Villainy Virtue Faith Truth Freedom Peace Masculine Green Ming Dynasty Heavens Future Youth Energy Fertility Strength Criminality Safety Go Yellow Birth Wealth Power Grace Nobility Happiness Prosperity Temporary Cowardice Temporary White Death Purity
Death Joy Neutrality Purity
Table 2.1: Colour meaning tables from [Barber and Badre, 1998]
The work by Emmanuel Blanchard is one of the few to address culture in learning, specifically in Intelligent Tutoring Systems. In [Blanchard and Frasson, 2005], the author presents a “Culturally AWAre System (CAWAS) which is centred on Culturally Intelligent Agents (CIA). The agents are able to understand and adapt to the cultural specificities of learners. CAWAS considers two attributes for cross cultural adaptation, namely emotions and learner preference for individual or collaborative work (this is linked to a single question in a questionnaire to the Hofstede IDV index, see the Section 2.4.1 for more details). The authors also present an authoring tool to create cultural templates of multimedia documents.
In [Blanchard and Mizoguchi, 2008] the author lists as one of the major issues of Culturally Aware Tutoring Systems:
“Existing cultural data is not always reliable for educational use. Preeminent cross cultural studies have mainly been developed for and within the context of leadership or business researches …. Legitimate concerns can be raised on how (and if) findings can be transferred and used within educational settings.” [Blanchard and Mizoguchi, 2008]
This issue is central to Chapter 3 of this thesis: can the previous studies into cultural stereotypes be used within a domain that they were not designed to investigate?
The CATS (Culturally Aware Tutoring Systems) workshop is a new series of workshops and only [Blanchard and Allard, 2008], [Blanchard et al, 2009] and [Blanchard et al, 2010] have been held so far. Within these workshops, many subjects have been covered that are relevant to cultural studies in eLearning; two of the most typical are:
Computer Assisted Language Learning [Allard et al, 2008] – how cultural differences can affect
language learning. This is one of the more traditional areas of cultural investigation in eLearning. Here, the authors map the knowledge of cultural differences to second language learning, when considering the learner’s first language. Mapping these issues will allow for future learners with the same mother tongue to avoid many of the same pitfalls.
The Culture Based Model [Young, 2009]: as culturally aware eLearning systems begin to become
better known, these models are being incorporated into extant training systems, such as ELECT BiLAT [Hill et al, 2006], Tactical Iraqi [Johnson et al, 2007] and Vector [Barba et al, 2006]. Using the results of these integrations, the author (Young) extrapolates a Culture Based Model that can be used in the future for further implementations. The focus here it should be noted is on computer based training systems, which have different requirements to AEH systems (which are much more open), however this model may be amenable to adoption in the AEH community with some modifications.
Overall, the work in the Culturally Aware Tutoring Systems workshops is very promising, but many major issues remain (some of which are addressed in [Blanchard and Allard, 2010]). The research presented here in this thesis expands on the use of prior cultural studies in eLearning.