Addressing the Place of Andragogy

In the context of learning as an adult, the term andragogy needs to be addressed in this study as it continues to be an important influence on the discussions on learning in adulthood. The andragogical “set of assumptions” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 104) were developed as the discourse of adult learning emerged and sought to distinguish itself from other areas of education. Principles of andragogy still permeate adult learning and adult second language learning discourses, yet use of the term itself appears to be considered legitimate and continues to be widely used in some discourses while considered unnecessary or out of vogue in others. The following discussion outlines the historical development and the contemporary placeof andragogy and any lasting influence that it has had.

Defined by Knowles as “the art and science of helping adults learn” (Knowles et al., 2005, p. 61), andragogy developed and had wide influence in the USA throughout the 1970s and 80s, with extensive literature continuing to be published on andragogy both critiquing and addressing its application. Although an in-depth discussion of the historical roots or current conceptions of andragogy is beyond the scope of this study, it does have a place in any discussion of learning in adulthood as it is

acknowledged as the “best-known theory of adult learning” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 104).

Although Knowles has been credited with developing andragogy in contrast to pedagogy in the USA (Knowles‟ 1968 article in Adult Leadership was entitled

Andragogy not Pedagogy), the term was already in use in Europe in what Reischmann (2004) calls three waves without one central definition, but with an

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indication of the directions recognisable in adult teaching and learning discussions today, the importance of self-reflection and life experiences included. In Europe, the term andragogy “nowhere described one specific concept or movement”, rather it was used by “institutions, publications, programs” associated with adult education (Reischmann, 2004, p. 5). Reischmann (2004) notes the continued use of the term andragogy in Europe, South America and Korea, and a survey of journals indicates the term is still widely used, Savicevic (2008) commenting that “the greatest

numbers of supporters of the concept of andragogy as a social scientific discipline (or under another name) come from Central and Eastern Europe and from the USA” (p. 361). However, Reischmann (2004) claims that other terminology is used more often.

Knowles‟ approach to andragogy, received wide recognition across the English speaking world with its fundamental concepts of learner self-directedness and

autonomy, and teacher role as facilitator. It is difficult to determine precisely what is meant by the term andragogy as introduced by Knowles, as it has been described variously as “ a set of guidelines …, a philosophy …, a set of assumptions…, and a theory” (Knowles et al., 2005, p. 1). Merriam et al. (2007) comment on the paucity of empirical studies conducted focusing on andragogy: “Considering that andragogy has been the primary model of adult learning for over forty years, relatively little empirical work has been done to test the validity of its assumptions or its usefulness in predicting adult learning behaviour” (p. 91).

Knowles (1990) developed basic principles of adult learning that continue to be widely accepted and used as a basis for teaching practice, expanding existing historical assumptions. He developed a list of six core adult learning principles that he regarded essential for the teacher of adults to know, then specified what was necessary to help adults to learn:

 The need to know: adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it.

 Adults have a psychological need to be seen by others as capable of self- direction.

 Adults have a wealth of experiences which can be a resource for learning.

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55  Adults‟ orientation to learning is life-centred.

 The most potent motivations for adults to learn are internal. (Knowles et al., 2005, pp. 64-69)

The concept of the self-directed nature of learning, although challenged, has remained as foundational in adult learning and teaching, as has the importance of regard for the experiences of older learners. The literature continues to acknowledge that the substantial life experiences of adults are a key factor in providing a rich resource for learning, as Taylor et al. (2000) state, “These experiences are valuable – we would claim essential – contributions to the learning process” (p. 7). Adults have accumulated more experiences and have different experiences to children and these experiences are unique to the individual adult. However, experiences are not always positive and negative experiences can hinder learning or become an obstacle to the learner (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Although experiences can be a rich resource for learning, it is when we reflect on experience that it can be of value. Jarvis (2004) comments on the role of experience in adult learning as presented by Knowles:

It appeared that while Knowles focused upon something quite significant to adult learning, i.e. experience, his formulation was rather weak, not based upon extensive research findings, nor was it the total picture of adult learning. Indeed, it was not a psychological analysis of the learning process, it did not describe what aspects of experience are relevant, nor did it generate a

learning sequence for an adult, so some of the claims that Knowles made for andragogy now appear to be rather suspect. (pp. 128-129)

In assessing the contribution of andragogy to our understanding of adult learning, Tennant (1997), concludes that “andragogy is not really a theory of adult learning at all. It is more a philosophical position on the aims of adult education” (p. 18). Although Knowles‟ concept of andragogy has met with criticism for, amongst other reasons, the foundations upon life cycle theory, the emphasis on individual learning without reference to social context, the concept of self-directedness, and its

perspective of education as “the identification and elimination of deficits or „gaps‟ in

knowledge, performance, or self concept” (Tennant, 1997, p. 17), principles have remained core for many adult educators (Field, 2006; Taylor et al., 2000; Tennant, 1997). Knowles et al. (2005) respond to the critique however, “Experienced adult

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learning professionals have learnt that, like most models, the andragogical learning principles are tempered by an array of other factors that affect learning behaviour” (p. 204).

Savicevic (2008) informs us that the discussion on andragogy as a separate discipline continues, currently with the following three main perspectives: in the USA there are those who continue to use andragogy as a model of learning where “ways of

behavior in the processes of education and learning” are prescriptive (para. 5); a growing number of “followers” of andragogy as “an integral science of learning and education of adults” (para. 6) located mostly in Eastern and Central Europe, the USA and Canada; and thirdly, a school of thought that regards andragogy as unnecessary as the learning and education of adults is addressed in existing disciplines such as psychology and sociology. This then confirms that there continue to be at least three different approaches to andragogy in the contemporary context.