Context in Learning

With the rapid societal, economic and technological changes in the world, adults need to keep learning to “to function effectively in the changing world around them” (Taylor et al., 2000, p. 4) rather than relying on what they have learned or

experienced in the past. Increasingly there is recognition that learning occurs in all aspects of life and in many contexts, as addressed in relation to the discussions on lifelong, life wide, and life based learning above. However, this is not always recognised as learning, as Foley (2004) notes, “All human activity has a learning dimension. People learn, continually, informally and formally, in many different settings: in workplaces, in families, through leisure activities, through community activities, and in political action” (p. 4).

Forms of learning have generally been categorised as formal, informal and non- formal with overlap occurring between these. Formal learning occurs where learning is undertaken through an organised programme of study at an institution or

workplace which is recognised through a qualification; informal learning occurs where the learner or a group of learners initiate and carry out the learning in pursuit of their own interests; and non-formal learning which is organised outside a formal system as required, such as in community-based opportunities (Foley, 2004; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Foley also categorises incidental learning as the learning that occurs “by-product of other learning” (p. 53), such as developing public speaking skills when necessary for involvement in social activism. However, the nature and contexts of learning are being re-evaluated in light of the discourse of lifelong

learning, as discussed above, when these dichotomies, such as formal-informal, seem inadequate in describing learning across all contexts or strata:

If learning is lifelong and life wide, what specifically then is a learning context?... in so far as we expand our context of learning to apparently embrace all strata of life, we might be said to lose the conceptual basis for talking specifically of a learning context? (Edwards, Biesta, & Thorpe, 2009, p. 1)

Learning in adulthood

59

Coupled with the consideration of context there is a growing recognition in the literature of the necessity for an integrated approach to learning in adulthood which addresses the person as a whole where in the past there has been a tendency to assume a dichotomy between cognitive and physical processes, and those of the emotions. Gonczi (2004), comments that, “such a learning concept takes account of the affective, moral, physical as well as the cognitive aspects of individuals and insists that real learning takes place only in and through action” (p. 19).

In attempting to find a model of learning that adequately described the nature of the learning experiences of the informants involved in this study, other concepts were examined as those discussed to this point go some way towards clarifying our understanding of the participants‟ experiences and yet do not address something of the essence of their experiences. The preceding concepts do not explicate the determination to proceed with, or the commitment to, English language learning and use in the light of the ongoing challenges, nor do they go far enough in describing the intrinsic motivations for learning or transformation that can occur as adults learn. As Taylor et al. (2000) note, “Though adults‟ expressed purpose is usually to work toward pragmatic goals, thoughtful self-reflection often reveals more complex desires” (p. 9). It appeared to the researcher that other factors were also involved in the language learning of the participants.

In considering the role of context on learning, Lave and Wenger (1991) provide a social theory of learning and knowledge development from business management, the concept of situated learning, approaching learning in a different way from the traditional cognitive or developmental tradition (Tennant, 1997). People who share a concern or a passion for something they do regularly interact to learn how to do it better, the newcomer beginning in a new situation on the periphery of practice and, over time, moving to full participation and engagement. Learning is not considered as a separate activity but as an integral part of social practice and participation, where learning is placed “in the context of our lived experience of participation in the world” (Wenger, 1998, p. 3). Lave and Wagner (1991) assert that “learning, thinking and knowing are relations among people in activity in, with, and arising from the socially and culturally structured world” (p. 51). Tennant (1997) clarifies that this

Learning in adulthood

60

goes beyond learning by doing, rather “learning is not so much a matter of

individuals acquiring mastery over knowledge and processes of reasoning‟, but of participation as members of a socio-cultural community” (p. 74).

The experiences of adult learners and uses of ESL have very clear commonalities with those described above, where through their lived experiences of learning and using ESL they begin as newcomers on the periphery of practice, the new culture and language, moving to engagement as proficiency and confidence grow. For the participants in this study, the participation in a new socio-cultural community is made possible through learning and using English as a second language. There are essentially at two communities of practice in which learners are seeking to engage while learning English; that of the local community and that of the WCHO.

However, the language learning process is not without challenges, the engagement with a socio-cultural community occurring as it does in a new culture thus adding another layer of complexity. The language learning experiences related by participants in this study were much richer than simply cognitive processes or development of technical skills, but rather impacted upon the self, upon the identity of the language learner.

While situated learning is one lens through which we can view the experiences of participants, learning can also affect the person in a deeper manner, as pointed out by Jarvis (2006) in the preceding section. From the discussion to this point it is clear that there are other areas of the literature that are necessary to explore to reach a fuller understanding of experiences of the participants in the study and it is to transformative learning theory that we move to in the following section.