3.2 Distribution and functions
3.2.4 Affect verbs
Affect verbs are a broadly defined class denoting events where something is manipulated or moved by an agent in such a way that it comes into contact with some other thing or person (Dixon, 2005:110). In the SES languages, as in other Oceanic languages, members of this class are formed from both Actor and Undergoer subject verbs.
3.2.4.1 Undergoer-subject Affect verbs
Among typical Undergoer-subject verbs from the Affect class are verbs denoting breaking, splitting, smashing and tearing. Whilst in languages from both branches these can occur either as bare transitives or suffixed with -(C)i, suffixed forms are much less common in the GG languages, and especially in the southeast part of Guadalcanal, than in the LMM languages. This is shown by the data in Table 3.22. Whilst this difference could be due to differences in the amount of data available, it is
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in agreement with the pattern of lower overall proportion of suffixed verbs in the languages of SE Guadalcanal. Note that many of the intransitive (and some transitive) forms in the table are morphologically complex and reflect valency-decreasing prefixes; these are fossilised in some languages and not discussed here.
Table 3.22 Bare and suffixed transitive forms of Undergoer affect verbs
Intransitive Transitive with reflexes of *-i
Kwaio (LMM)
gaa be split, broken gaa-si- break s.t.
a-bota open, hatched (of eggs)
bota-li- smash
mou broken mou-si- cut, break
Arosi (LMM)
bwaro break bwaro-'i- break s.t.
maga be broken maga-'i- break s.t. open
apweta broken, smashed apweta-si = apweta-hi to break, smash ge-gewa ma-gewa break to pieces; broken gewa-'i break
ma-kasa broken kasa-'i
= kasa-ri
to break
mena-mena crushed, broken to pieces
mena-si to crush, break to pieces
Kahua (LMM)
a-bota broken (a)bota-ghi- break, pound, crush
(a)sita being split, split, cloven
(a)sita-ri- split, cleave, chop lengthwise
a-mena-mena be in pieces, broken, crushed or smashed into pieces
(mena)-mena-ri- break or smash into small pieces
mu broken (rope) mu-si- vt. break (rope, string)
papa broken in two papa-ngi- papa-ri-
break into many pieces;
smash or break into pieces
Gari (GG)
tapa split, cracked tapa-li- to split, to crack
Gela (GG)
koso break apart, snap koso-ti snap, sever
utu ta-utu
break, be severed utu-hi sever
voga to be split, rent, as a sail by the wind; to be cracked, as glass voga-li voga vt. cause s.t. to split or crack vt. to split, crack, rend s.t.
unu to crack unu-hi vt. to crack s.t. (check) Bare transitive
87 mo-'oi be broken (as
pencil)
'oi- break s.t.
foga be split, broken (as coconut)
foga- break s.t.
kodo broken off, broken, amputated or missing
kodo- break off, esp. end of yam tuber
ma-kwe'e broken, be broken kwe'e-kwe'e- break
ma-lede broken, of spear or arrow
lede- snap, break in two
maa-ngisi-ngisi broken in pieces ngisi- cut, tear
ma-dikwa broken dikwe- break
a-kasi torn, broken through kasi- tear, break through
Arosi (LMM)
ma-'oi to be broken off 'oi to break
ma-risi broken, severed risi to cut off, cut up
ma-kari torn kari vt. to tear
Kahua (LMM)
ma-komo break, broken komo-komo- tear or pull to pieces
makuru-gha having holes (containers)
makuru- make a hole, perforate
Birao (GG)
ta-karo be broken karo- break s.t.
ta-vota be broken, split open
voti- break, split s.t.
ta-bosa be broken bosa- break s.t.
ta-kubu be broken (in two) kubu- break s.t.
Koo (GG)
ta-rese be broken rese- break s.t.
ta-kubu be broken (as stick) kubu- break s.t.
ta-pitsu be torn pitsu- tear s.t.
potsa be broken, have a hole potsa- potsa-li- break or tear s.t. " Gari (GG)
ta-kotso broken kotso- to break, to crush
brittle things
ta-rese be broken into pieces
rese- break s.t. into pieces
ta-voti be broken voti- break s.t.
ta-kuti be broken off kuti- cut, break s.t. off
Gela (GG)
ta-boha broken, smashed, burst
boha- break, smash, burst
ta-ngodo be broken, smashed ngodo- break, smash (as plate)
ta-goti be broken goti vt. to break, as a
stick
ka-boku be broken at the top boku vt. to break s.t. in two
ta-pido be fallen and broken pido vt. to tap an egg or shell to break it, to break up small ta-rosi ma-rosi be torn " rosi vt. to tear s.t.
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ta-midi be split midi vt. to split s.t., as timber
(Data from: Archdiocese of Honiara, 2008; Fox et al., 2015; Keesing, 1975; my fieldnotes)
3.2.4.2 Actor-subject Affect verbs
Affect verbs can also be Actor-subject verbs, denoting process-actions such as 'dig', 'cut', 'chop', 'touch', 'hit', 'punch' 'shoot', 'rub', 'wrap', 'build', 'weave' or 'squeeze'. Verbs in this category frequently occur as bare transitives as well as suffixed with -(C)i and there does not appear to be any semantic factor determining the distribution of the suffix, as shown in Table 3.23. As observed with other verb types, the GG languages tend to have bare transitive forms more often than suffixed forms, whereas in the LMM languages the distribution of bare and suffixed forms is somewhat more even.
Table 3.23 Bare and suffixed transitive forms of Actor affect verbs
Bare transitive Transitive with reflexes of *-i
Lau (LMM)
'eli- dig s.t.
losi- squeeze s.t. (coconut)
'afu- wrap up
labu- strike, hit with a blow
fana-si- shoot at
kumu-li- punch s.o.
rabu-si- to beat, hit, flog
hau-ni- pound s.t., hit s.o.
bu-li- stamp on, press with foot, kick
Arosi (LMM)
'eri- dig s.t.
rosi- squeeze s.t. (coconut)
biibii- wrap s.t.
buta- kick s.o.
tagu- cut grass
ahu- wrap up ahu-i- wrap up
hana-si- vt. shoot
rubu-'i- punch s.o.
rabu-si- hit s.o.
daro-'i- hit with a stick
hida-ri- hit s.o., s.t. with a hand
tora-i- build a house
buu-ri- tread on, kick, step upon
Longgu (LMM)
asi- dig s.t.
losi- squeeze s.t.
wa'i- hit, kill s.o.
goni- do, fix, build s.t.
buli- step on s.t.
vana-si- shoot s.t.
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rabu-si- hit s.o., s.t. with hand or stick
Birao (GG)
heli- dig s.t.
lotsi- squeeze s.t. (coconut)
poro- wrap s.t.
ansi- build s.t.
piru- cut grass
chike- kick s.t. chike-ri- kick s.t.
vana-si- shoot s.t. with bow and arrow
suku-li- punch s.o.
labu-si- hit, fight s.o.
Malango (GG)
heli- dig s.t.
lusi- squeeze s.t. (coconut)
pulu- wrap s.t.
suku- punch s.o.
pidu- punch s.o.
vatohi- kick s.t., s.o.
labu- hit, beat s.o.
loho- build s.t.
tohi- cut grass
vana-si- shoot s.t. with bow and arrow
ago-si- make, build s.t.
Lengo (GG)
kabi- dig s.t.
luthi- squeeze s.t. (coconut)
pulu- wrap s.t.'
tughi- punch s.o.
abu- strike, hit with hand or stick
goni- build s.t.
kimu- kick s.t.
kulo- cut grass
vana-thi- shoot s.t. with bow and arrow
butu-li- kick s.o. with the sole of foot (Data from: Fox, 1974, 1978; Hill, n.d.; Unger, 2010; my fieldnotes)
Where there are POc reconstructions available, it seems that PSES was rather conservative, as the PSES forms reflect the distribution of the suffix, as shown in Table 3.24.
Table 3.24 Reconstructed forms of some affect verbs in POc and PSES (or branch level)
Intransitive Transitive Transitive with *-i
POc (L1)
*p(w)anaq shoot *p(w)anaq-i- shoot s.t.
POc(BEf)
*pana(s,k) shoot *pana(s,k) shoot s.t.
PSES (BEf)
90 POc(L5)
*butu stamp foot, tread, kick *butuR-i- stamp on, tread on, trample
PSES
*butu stamp foot, tread, kick *butu-li- stamp on, tread on, trample
PCEOc (BE03)
*peles squeeze, press *peles-i- squeeze, press
PSES
*vele squeeze, press *vele-zi- squeeze, press
POc (L1)
*kapu(t) close, cover *kaput-i- wrap, cover
PLMM
*ʔafu wrap *ʔafu-i- wrap s.t. up Bare transitive
POc (L1)
*keli dig, harvest (tubers)
PSES
*ɣeli dig *ɣeli- dig s.t., harvest (tubers)
POc (L1)
*losi(t) squeeze, wring
PSES
*lozi squeeze, wring *lozi- squeeze, wring
(Evans, 2003, n.d.; Lichtenberk & Osmond, 1998; Osmond, 1998a, 1998b; Ross, 2016a; Ross, Clark, & Osmond, 1998)