Autonomous learning

With regard to independent learning, there is an important question: what is the main issue concerning independent learning if learners do not have or cannot improve their independent learning skills (Luke & Hogarth, 2011)? This issue is based on an individual’s ability for self- discovery and self-reliance in order to gain knowledge, experience and skills (Dempster, 1993). According to M. G. Moore (1973), independent learning concerns ‘what students learn and how they learn’.

Independent learning has been defined as the learning structure that gives learners an opportunity to learn by themselves and be separate from their teachers in time and space. Moreover, this learning process is undertaken by utilising print or electronic resources (M. G. Moore, 1973). Technological improvements have influenced the learning structure by encouraging independent learning (Grasha & Yangarber-Hicks, 2000). The fundame nta l concept is for learners to motivate, manage and control their learning by undertaking activit ies and actions to fill their knowledge gaps and to improve their experience and skills (Biggs & Tang, 2007).

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Grow (1991) sketched a model for independent learning. Grow created four stages for learning: dependent, interested, involved and self-directed. The first stage is ‘dependent’ covering learners who are not able to gain knowledge without supported instruction from a teacher who provides lectures, directions and specific tasks (Heresy & Blanchard, 2001). The second stage is ‘interested’ wherein learners are ready and confident to learn and make an effort to achieve tasks. However, learners still need direction and support from an instructor to guide them. This means that learners do not have the ability to achieve tasks until they have received direct and specific explanations (Heresy & Blanchard, 2001; Warring, 2013). The third stage is ‘involved’ which means that the learners are clever and able to achieve tasks but have a need for motivat io n and confidence in order to perform tasks. In this stage, learners need encouragement and motivation and instructors need to be involved in decision making (Heresy & Blanchard, 2001). Stage-three learners have the opportunity to succeed with support from an instructor because they have talent and ability (Warring, 2013). The fourth stage of independent learning is ‘self- directed’ which incorporates a high level of independent learning. The learner at this level does not need direction and support because the learner has confidence and ability. In the fourth stage, learners can plan their own systems/techniques in order to achieve the learning outcomes they desire (Heresy & Blanchard, 2001).

Table 2.1 Grow’s Model for Independent Learning

1 Dependent Learners are unable/unwilling and/or insecure. Decisions are made by the teacher.

2 Interested Learners are unable but are willing and/or confident. Decisions are made by the teacher with explanation and support given to the learners.

3 Involved Learners are able but are unwilling and/or insecure. Decisions are shared.

4 Self-directed Learners are able/willing and/or confident. Decisions are made by the learners.

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Independent learning has a variety of benefits. Independent learning increases and encourages the ability to learn autonomously and allows learners to create a framework to analyse and solve problems (Dawkins & Holding, 1987). Furthermore, independent learning enhances learners’ critical thinking and supports the understanding of deep and complex concepts (Percy & Salter, 1976). In addition, independent learning supports learners in maintaining life- long education (Koper & Tattersall, 2004). Although independent learning is fruitful for students, it also helps to develop organisations, employers and professional people (Luke & Hogarth, 2011).

The information processing theory enhances independent learning by providing a self-regula t io n model and by supporting this model with learning strategies. The information processing theory has improved the connection between the cognitive and self-regulation processes (Schunk, 2012). This research adopts theory concepts to measure independent learning by using gaming technology. The information processing theory is based on the encoding of information in the long-term memory. Learners retrieve information from the long-term memory and transfer it to the short-term memory which utilises existing information in order to understand and recognise new knowledge as well as organising and storing knowledge in the long-term memory for future use (Schunk, 2012).

Self-regulated learning requires an individual to monitor, direct and coordinate activity in order to achieve learning goals (Paris & Paris, 2001). It concerns ‘what is to be learned, when and how it is to be learned’ (Schunk, 2012, p. 416). A model for self-regulated learning involves three important phases which are (1) a task’s definition, (2) goals and plans, and (3) studying tactics. In addition, there is an optional phase of adaptation (Schunk, 2012). The first phase is about defining the task and includes two parts: (1) learners receive clear information and direction from the teacher or instructor concerning the successful performance of the task; (2) the cognitive part is based on learners retrieving information from the long-term memory in order to understand the task (Schunk, 2012). The second phase concerns setting the goals of learning and planning in order to achieve the goals effectively. Then, in the third phase, learners set some tactics to acquire knowledge and improve their knowledge and learning experience. Later, in the optional phase, learners can adapt and evaluate how successful they have been (Schunk, 2012).

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All in all, autonomous learning requires willingnes s and confidence as well as manageme nt skills and memory processing in order to perform learning successfully via this learning system. This leads to using effective tools for future learning.