Techniques and Procedure

The research used several additional types of techniques to elicit data: (1) a questionnaire based on the curiosity inventory, independent learning level and understanding level. The questionnaire used close-ended questions utilising Likert scales; (2) semi-structured interviews that asked questions directly and recorded the answers (Saunders et al., 2012), and (3) observation (as a means of data collection) to support the questionnaires’ data collectio n. Experimental research uses questionnaires.

The data analysis was used to explain and test the use of gaming technology in learning and to compare this data with the results of using e-books for learning purposes.

3.6.1 Data collection techniques

Several types of data collection techniques were used to explore and test the impact of gaming technology and the impact of an e-book on learning. A comparison was made of the findings and results from both techniques.

3.6.2 Semi-structured interviews

An interview is an effective technique and procedure to collect data. It helps to explain phenomena efficiently and in this research semi-structured interviews were used to discover specific information that helped to compare the two groups’ answers (Dawson, 2013; Saunders et al., 2012). Researchers use semi-structured interviews because they provide the advantage of using both open-ended questions and close-ended questions in the interview. Moreover, for qualitative data collection, semi-structured interviews help to create themes and the key structure that is needed to be measured and explained through the interviews. A semi-struct ured interview helps to gain further information in order to answer the research question and achieve the research objective (Saunders et al., 2012).

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This research utilised face-to-face and one-on-one interviews (John W. Creswell, 2011).. This type of interview support the results that have been gained via observation and experiment and can provide a clear description of learners’ attitudes and cognition (John W. Creswell, 2011). The interviews used in this research asked two different types of questions. Firstly, open-ended questions were used in order to gain more information and get a better understanding of the learners’ experience in the experiment (Pickard, 2013; Saunders et al., 2012). Secondly, the interviews included close-ended questions to measure specific concepts in the learning theories, constructivism and the cognitive load theory (Pickard, 2013; Saunders et al., 2012). The close- ended questions utilised a Likert scale which ‘is a bipolar scaling technique, which allows a respondent to select a choice that best demonstrates their level of agreement with a given statement’ (Pickard, 2013, p. 213). By using such a scale, the relationship between the dependent and independent variables was discovered and the learning factors were measured numerica l ly.

3.6.2.1 Questionnaire

This research used two types of questionnaire. The first asked close-ended questions in the interviews. The second questionnaire technique measured curiosity by using the Melbourne State-Trait Curiosity Inventory to discover the natural level of curiosity of a participant by undertaking a trait-form. Then, the effect of gaming technology or using an e-book on a participant’s curiosity was measured by undertaking the state-form. By having the participants complete this form, it was then possible to measure the effect of gaming technology or the use of the e-book on a participant’s curiosity.

3.6.2.2 Observation

Observation can be undertaken directly, by recording with video or by using software. Research can use all types of observation. Observation helps a researcher to explain the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable by monitoring the learner (Dawson, 2013). Based on the experiment strategy, observation has a part to play in research because it helps to discove r the time that a participant spent on accomplishing a task. Also, observation leads to ascertaining if a participant performs a task correctly. Snagit software was used to monitor participant activity on the screen and the time taken to undertake the experiment. The author also observed the participants directly.

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Objective data collection was achieved by using a FaceReader system (see section 3.5.6.4). Collecting data through several means allows for that data to be analysed within, and categorised into, different areas, some of which relate to the qualitative part, some to theme analysis, and some to the quantitative part and the statistical results.

3.6.3 Data Analysis

Based on the needs of the research and the data collection, several types of data analysis can be conducted to find appropriate results that can answer the research questions and achieve the research aim. Content analysis was used for finding themes, factors, sub-factors, and elements. Statistical analysis was used to compare impact before and after using both technologies. Moreover, participant satisfaction regarding certain research factors was analysed. Finally, the data analysis compared the impact of gaming technology with the impact of the e-book.

3.6.3.1 Content analysis

Content analysis used in this research was based on the themes, factors and sub-factors that were discovered in the literature review. Work was carried out to find more sub-factors and elements that could help to explain the impact of gaming technology and e-books on learning. Ryan and Bernard (2003, p. 85) described the analysis process as ‘analysing text involv[ing] several tasks: (1) discovering themes and subthemes; (2) winnowing themes to a manageable few (i.e., deciding which themes are important in any project); (3) building hierarchies of themes or code books; and (4) linking theme to theoretical model’. The theoretical framework for this research was built upon content analysis. Saunders et al. (2012) mentioned that content analysis searches for meaning and the need to organise data and use words to explain phenomena. This research used content analysis to answer why and how gaming technology affected participants and compared that with the influence exerted by the e-book.

NVivo software was used to determine the factors, sub-factors and elements for each theme that was measured and explored in the research. It also provided the research with figures to clarify the results.

Content analysis was used to analyse the responses to the open-ended questions in the interviews and to obtain more explanation of the observations.

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3.6.3.2 Statistical analysis

The statistical part of this research used a paired-sample t-test to compare the impact of gaming technology with the impact of the e-book on the participants’ autonomous stage, curiosity level, and understanding before and after using both technologies. Moreover, an independent-sa mp le t-test was used to compare the impact of gaming technology with the impact of the e-book. The t-test was used for several reasons: (1) research about cause and effect: the cause and effect of gaming technology and e-book in learning was used and then the results were compared; (2) t- tests work with a small group: t-tests support and can be used with small groups as it was difficult to find a large number of participants to undertake this experiment which was limited to Ph.D. students at the University of Salford); (3) the test is used to compare means: the author used the t-test to compare means to find the difference between the impact of gaming technology and the impact of an e-book on learning, (4) it works very well with experiment results (Field, 2009; Pallant, 2013; Rumsey, 2011).

Furthermore, objective analysis of participants’ emotions during learning was used to analyse participants’ emotions while learning from the e-book and while learning using gaming technology.

In addition, close-ended questions provided the results that showed participant satisfact io n concerning the themes and factors that were influenced by using the e-book and gaming technology. Close-ended questions about satisfaction helped to measure the effect of both technologies on the cognitive load. SPSS software and Excel software were used to undertake the statistical analysis. Overall, the statistical analysis helped to obtain a better understanding concerning the impact of gaming technology and the impact of e-books on learning.