In August 2015, after our honeymoon to Alaska and a chance meeting with a family friend, I received a phone call from a federally-recognized tribe in Alaska asking if I would conduct a needs assessment for their Education and Training Department. The tribe needed a needs assessment completed in order to evaluate and possibly improve its programs. After consulting the dissertation committee and SC administrators, I developed research questions for the project. The following research questions were developed:
1. What is the Springfield Corporation’s definition of “need?”
2. What would the Springfield Corporation wish for the education and employment of its members?
3. What is an overall picture of the educational and training programs of the Springfield Corporation?
4. What is the status of higher education among Springfield Corporation members? 5. What is an overall picture of the Springfield Corporation’s cultural education and
language programs?
6. What is the overall picture of employment and employment opportunities for Springfield Community members?
7. How are educational and cultural programs preparing people for further education and for employment?
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The results indicated that overall, schooling programs in Springfield were satisfactory and that SC and Springfield schools took steps to prepare students for higher education and for vocational careers. However, many participants in all four target groups – SC/NEC adults, Springfield educators, Springfield students, and Springfield employers – reported that vocational education and training programs in Springfield (both within Springfield schools and SC) needed to be restored, broadened, and improved in order to provide sufficient opportunities for students who wanted to pursue a vocational path for their desired careers. Balancing vocational and academic education equally within schooling programs in Springfield may not only benefit K-12 students and local adults but could also potentially strengthen and diversify Springfield’s
economy. This chapter will briefly outline the literature found in the literature review, provide a summary of the study’s findings, reflect upon the literature as compared to the study’s findings, and discuss the study’s limitations, implications, and suggestions for future research.
Literature Review Overview
The literature review was split into four sections. Three out of four sections aimed to provide an overview of philosophies, practices, and policies which informed current vocational education practices. Early European models of vocational education, early apprenticeship programs, and 19th and 20th century philosophers such as W.E.B. Du Bois, David Snedden and Charles Prosser (Newman & Winston, 2016; Gordon, 2014) seemed to have had a direct impact on federal vocational education policy at the beginning of the 20th century. Scholars debated whether vocational education programs should be offered primarily to disadvantaged populations and/or whether vocational education and training should be treated as a separate entity from academic education. These philosophical debates and debate outcomes, especially the thought
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that vocational education and training ought to be treated as a separate entity from academic education, seemed to inform early federal policy and permeate policymaking to the present day.
The literature review found that the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 was the first piece of federal legislation regarding vocational education and set the foundation for most past and current vocational education and training policies. The Smith-Hughes Act subsidized vocational education for certain age groups, programs and individuals. Vocational education was funded by a set of grants, only to certain programs and only to specific groups of high school-aged students.
The school reform movement of the 1980s changed the outlook for vocational education and training. One of the goals of school reform aimed to create a competitive American
schooling system by creating standards and accountability measures for both academic and vocational schooling. Federal legislation as of the 2015-2016 school year included the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006 and the Workforce
Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014. Both acts seemed to be the most impactful federal legislation for vocational education and training in Alaska. According to the literature (Gordon, 2014; Threeton, 2007; Dortch, 2012a; Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education
Improvement Act, 2006; Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act, 2014), the acts also seemed to have been impacted by the school reform movement. Both acts required accountability measures and that state plans be developed, and both aimed to maintain or increase the competitiveness of the United States within the workforce.
Funding for vocational education and training also seemed to be impacted by past presidential administrations. For instance, Presidents Bush and Obama requested a decrease in federal spending for vocational education and training. Cuts to vocational education and training seemed to have impacted Springfield’s local vocational education and training, potentially
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leading to the defunding of some classes not linked to designated programs and cuts to whole vocational education and training programs. With the decline in federal funding, it seems that states had to choose between picking up the financial slack themselves or cutting programs.
The Alaska Department of Education & Early Development (n.d.) and the Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development (n.d.) also seemed to have had an impact on vocational education in Alaska’s high schools. Alaska complied with No Child Left Behind, the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006 and the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014 (Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce
Development, 2015; Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development, n.d.; Alaska Department of Education & Early Development, n.d.-b, n.d.-c, 2010). However, Alaska was one of a minority of states that did not adopt Common Core standards and also opted out of the Race to the Top Program of 2009. Although there were limited sources on how the acts impacted Southeast Alaska, the Alaska Department of Education & Early Development’s and the Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development’s websites provided insight on how Alaska is implementing these acts. The websites also provided information on the state standards, plans, grant information, and job networking opportunities.
There are several arguments for an increased focus on vocational education in current scholarship, summarized with the following points. According to Gray (2009), there are outstanding open positions for skilled labor jobs. Not all students wish to pursue a higher education (Newman & Winston, 2016). Studies found that a mix of academic and vocational education in high school may improve high school dropout and graduation rates (Plank, 2001; Plank et al., 2008; Chadd & Drage, 2006), that it may help students reach proficiency in mathematics and reading (Chadd & Drage, 2006), and that students obtain similar academic
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testing outcomes whether or not they pursue vocational education in high school (Plank, 2001). Scholarship (Gray, 2009; Plank, 2001; Rosenbaum, 2001; U.S. Department of Education, 2004) also asserted that high school students who took vocational education classes were more likely to gain employment and/or have a better chance of earning a higher income after graduation than those who only completed an academic track in high school. The data agreed with these studies, finding that students with the right combination of education and training in high school have a better chance of obtaining a living wage or higher without accruing additional education-related debt. In so doing, students may contribute to the sustainability and expansion of the local economy and community.
Study Background
After signing an independent contractor agreement with SC in November 2015, I became the primary researcher for the needs assessment. I lived in Springfield, Alaska during the Spring 2016 term to conduct the needs assessment. With the assistance of the dissertation committee and SC administrators, I developed the research questions listed above. I also identified four groups that would be targeted for active data collection. The four target populations were: (a) SC/NEC adults, (b) Springfield educators, (c) Springfield students, and (d) Springfield
employers. I then developed preliminary survey forms, interview/focus group scripts, and consent/assent forms. The proposed methods and materials were then submitted to the
university’s IRB. The IRB reviewed and approved the study’s proposed methods and materials in early 2016. After my husband and I arrived in Springfield, I presented my materials to the necessary SC and school personnel. I was able to gain study approval for these procedures and study materials from SC’s administration and from the school district during that time.
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My husband and I traveled to and lived in Springfield from March 2016 to June 2016. After all of the materials and procedures were approved, I administered the study surveys to the four targeted groups. I also interviewed the same groups with one-on-one or focus group interviews. All data were then uploaded to a computer and analyzed using software programs. The needs assessment results were based on these analyses.
Study Results
Throughout the data gathering process, tensions between federal government, state government, local government, and local residents seemed apparent. It also seemed that there was a disconnect and possibly a lack of transparency between local schooling and local, state and federal government entities. Participants in all categories believed that divides between these entities impacted the quality of life and job availability in Springfield. Residents believed that governmental action, mostly at the federal level, resulted in the loss of funding for public school programs, as well as for the loss of industries that in the past had provided Springfield residents with year-round, well-paying jobs. Participants in all categories noted funding cuts within the interviews and stated that the cuts had an adverse impact on classes, programs, and
extracurricular offerings. This included vocational education and training programs.
Participants in all categories would like Springfield’s economy to be strengthened for the benefit of Springfield’s residents. In recent decades, Springfield saw a shift from a
predominately resource-based, extraction economy to a mostly tourism-based economy (Kiffer, 2017; Shoaf, 1998; Nie, 2006; Bell, 2014; Alaska Forest Association, n.d.; Block, 2017).38 Although resource-based, extraction economies seemed to be present in Springfield on a limited
38 Kiffer (2017), Bell (2014), and Block (2017) were redacted to protect the anonymity of project stakeholders.
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scale, for most residents, a new education profile seemed to be required in order to maintain employment in the local economy. Local jobs now required more of a liberal arts education to cater to the hospitality industry, which had become a dominant industry within Springfield.
Overall, the study found that Springfield schools were satisfactory. It seems that educators are educating students to sufficiently meet the Alaska “Employability” standards (Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, 2006) and ASCA standards (ASCA, 2004). However, the study also indicated that Springfield schools had room for improvement. Reported reasons for a need for improvement included the following: (a) the school district emphasized too much on college preparation and not enough on work preparation; (b) employers claimed that most high school students lacked sufficient work ethic; (c) students believed that they lacked and needed more support and guidance regarding career development, career preparedness, and career exploration; (d) participants in all categories believed there to be insufficient funding and/or cuts in funding for school resources, hiring staff, and continuing programs; and (e) there was a general belief that students exhibited a lack of work ethic.
Many students wished to obtain a higher education. However, many other students have also noticed the demand for skilled labor within Springfield and wished to pursue skilled labor as their career choice. Participants in all categories believed that more vocational education and teachers/educators, more life skills, more work skills classes and programs, and more classes and programs teaching survival skills and how to be successful in sustainability and subsistence economies should be taught within high school. With the skills taught within these classes and programs, participants in all categories believed that they would be able to obtain and maintain well-paying jobs in Springfield, have the knowledge and skills necessary to live in the region’s
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sustainability and subsistence economy, and/or live independently and successfully in Springfield.
All subject groups believed that students should be taught skills that would benefit their long-term success within the workforce and many participants in all categories believed that students should be taught using a more community-based education approach. This belief included ideas such as more exposure to vocational education and training and life and work skills within a high school setting. Participants within all groups would like vocational education and training to be restored, expanded, and improved. Participants in all categories believed that a balanced schooling of both academic and vocational education and training should be made equally available to all K-12 students. This balance could help to strengthen and diversify Springfield’s economy in the long term.
While participants in all groups acknowledged that many quality industries and schooling programs exist in Springfield, they also indicated areas of improvement. The results of the study converged on the following major themes with regard to the dissertation research questions:
1. SC offered a definition of need that was noted in the “Methodology and Research Procedures” chapter and focused on material, educational and vocational educational needs. For the purposes of the dissertation, I elaborated on the definition of material well-being, needs for education and needs for forms of employment and the economy (question 1).
2. Springfield has a variety of economies including a subsistence economy, extraction- based, resource economies, and the tourism industry.
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3. Since the mid-to-late 1990s, due to a multitude of factors, the economy shifted from a mainly resource-based, extraction economy to a mainly tourism/hospitality economy (question 6).
4. This shift of economies impacted the quality of life for local residents (question 6). 5. Most businesses in Springfield employ blue-collar, seasonal work, and most
employers were small business owners. The majority of employers stated that the minimum education required for prospective employees was a high school diploma or GED (question 4; question 6).
6. A majority of high school students held jobs (question 6).
7. The quality of schooling within the school district and with SC-run programs were satisfactory, according to participants. However, participants noted several areas that needed improvement (question 3).
8. Due to the lack of SC/NEC survey data, the overall status of higher education within SC was difficult to determine. During the interviews, some failed to mentioned whether they attained a higher education degree, and others did not mention whether they received any training. However, when their education and/or training were mentioned, their experiences were varied. Therefore, the primary researcher could not accurately gauge the exact status of higher education within the native community (question 4).
9. The primary researcher could not fully gauge the current education level of employers or their current employees because the employer surveys and interviews did not directly ask employers for this information. However, some employer interviews mentioned the employer’s background and education. These data indicated that
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employers and their employees had varied education and training experiences beyond secondary school (question 4).
10.Data for the educator groups, educator survey results, interview results, and accumulated secondary data indicated that a majority of educators held graduate degrees (question 4).
11.When asked, most students stated that they wanted to attend college. When asked, many students stated that they wanted to attend job training programs after graduation (question 4).
12.Data indicated that schooling programs are preparing students for entry to
postsecondary education. However, participants in all categories believed that the schools exerted too much pressure on students to obtain a higher education and that students were not sufficiently informed about other career options. Participants within all groups stated that there were not enough vocational education options, classes, programs, and teachers/educators. Students, employers, adults, and educators also felt that students were not sufficiently informed about available careers within local trades. They also felt that students did not receive sufficient direction toward vocational education classes and programs within secondary and/or postsecondary schooling as viable career pathways (question 2; question 3; question 4; question 7; question 8).
13.Springfield schools were reported as not having sufficient basic resources, including quality textbooks, within the classroom (question 2; question 8).
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14.Springfield schools provided professional development programs for teachers. However, educators believed that they would benefit from additional professional development training (question 2; question 8).
15.Springfield educators believed that standards help them teach in the classroom. However, they also believed that standards and other accountability measures, such as standardized testing and teacher performance evaluations and feedback, needed to be revised to benefit students and the local economy (question 2; question 8).
16.Springfield schools need to improve student transitions and work with student
families on transition plans so that students can be transitioned successfully into high school and later into adulthood (question 2; question 8).
17.Springfield High School has a comprehensive school counseling program and works with school staff to ensure successful student transitions. However, more school counselors were strongly recommended to help guide students toward their most appropriate pathways for their education, training and career goals. More school staff positions and/or hiring activity were also recommended so that sufficient staff would be available to assist school counselors on student transitions (question 2; question 7; question 8).
18.Springfield schools have diverse populations and varying school programs. However, students wish that their diversity be celebrated and that all student cultures,
languages, and histories be taught more in schools. Students also reported that some programs were restricted and that they would like all programs to be made available to all students (question 2; question 8).
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19.SC should collaborate more with Springfield schools to provide quality instruction for Springfield students (question 2; question 8).
20.Students should be taught life skills, work skills, work ethic values, and learn about native sustainability and subsistence economies within school and SC programs (question 2; question 8).
21.Both Springfield schools and SC should obtain sustainable sources of funding for vocational education, cultural education and programs, language education, and guidance/career counseling (question 2; question 8).
22.Both Springfield schools and SC should further advertise their vocational education, life skills and work skills program offerings and engage in more collaboration efforts with local employers (question 2; question 8).
23.Both employers and adults acknowledged that several successful SC-funded vocational education and training programs had existed in the past. However, participants believed that programs were eliminated due to internal tension and/or lack of funding. One student, one employer, and one educator mentioned that an ongoing welding apprenticeship partnership seemed to be successful. However, other employers stated that SC vocational education and training programs were unknown to them. Some adults felt that the skills they could learn were restricted by the limited amount of vocational education and training opportunities made available to them. Some employers suggested that bureaucracy and a lack of sustainable funding affected both the diversity and the quality of program offerings (question 2; question 3; question 7; question 8).
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24.Participants in all categories also expressed that SC should broaden their vocational