The results chapters – Chapter 4 regarding the study context and Chapter 5 detailing the study findings – will present the overarching themes which were present in the qualitative data. Minor qualitative themes will not be given direct attention due to the sheer volume of data that was present.4 The quantitative results, due to the design of the study and the detailed nature of the data, will be presented in the next chapter as a complement to the qualitative themes.
Initially, I did not intend to ask participants about historical background information on Springfield’s economy and educational institutions. However, as I delved into this research, I realized that there were concerns were voiced by present-day citizens which I found to be notable. A few major industries and themes that were mentioned by participants will be briefly explored in this chapter including the fishing industry, the timber industry, the tourism industry, recreational activities, and local schooling. These facets of Springfield life were chosen as they were the most prevalent themes encountered in the study.
Springfield and Alaska
Russia was the first country to attempt to cross the Pacific Ocean and colonize the area we now know as Alaska, a territory originally known to Russia as Russian America (Mitchell, 1997; Naske & Slotnick, 1979; Farrar, 1922). Aleksei Chirikov was the first Russian explorer to sail successfully across the ocean, reaching the mainland of Alaska in 1741. This paved the way for Russian occupation and colonization (Mitchell, 1997). However, not all of present-day
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Alaska was “discovered” by Russia. The Spanish and British also explored Southeast Alaska in the late 1770s. Russia eventually took control of most of the area by the mid-1800s (Mitchell, 1997; Borneman, 2003; Roppel, 2011; Allen & Charles, 1992; Mackovjak, 2010)5. While Russia managed to establish some successful training posts and forts, they were not successful in
maintaining some of these positions as the government did not send Russian troops to help maintain them. Russia was also fearful of the loss of the Alaskan territory to Great Britain if they were to lose in their conflict with Britain during in the Crimean War. Therefore, Russia’s czar decided to preemptively sell the Alaskan territory to the United States in 1867 (Farrar, 1922; Mitchell, 1997).
Alaska Native Corporations in Springfield
There are two main Alaska Native corporations that own business enterprises in the Springfield area – the Springfield Corporation, or SC ([Springfield Corporation], 2012),6 and the North End Corporation, or NEC (Welcome to [North End], 2016).7 Since I worked mostly with SC, I will limit the background discussion to this group. SC currently has more than 5,700 members who are Alaska Native and/or American Indian and is largely governed by an eight- member Tribal Council (About Us, 2012).8 Today, SC students primarily attend state-run public schools. SC provides additional academic resources for its members (Cultural Heritage
Academic Services, 2012; [Springfield Corporation Language Education Program], 2012; Tribal
5 Allen and Charles (1992) and Roppel (2011) were redacted to protect the anonymity of project stakeholders.
6 To protect the anonymity of project stakeholders, this source was redacted. 7 To protect the anonymity of project stakeholders, this source was redacted. 8 To protect the anonymity of project stakeholders, this source was redacted.
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Youth Services, 2012; Workforce Development, 2012).9 Education programs provided to members include the Springfield Corporation Scholars program (Tribal Youth Services, 2012)10 and the Springfield Corporation Language Education Program (2012).11
American Schooling for Alaska Natives
Formal education offered to Alaska Native/American Indian populations in Alaska has evolved over time. In the 1880s, two types of schools were established in Alaska for Alaska Natives that could have affected Alaska Native/American Indian families in Springfield: day schools and state vocational boarding schools. Some schools were run by the state, while others were contracted out to Christian denominations (Barnhardt, 2001; Mitchell, 1997; Shoemaker, 2001). Presbyterian minister Reverend Shelton Jackson and teacher-missionary Amanda McFarland became some of the first American missionaries to establish schools in Alaska. In 1877, they established a Christian mission school for Alaska Natives in present-day Wrangell (Mitchell, 1997; Naske & Slotnick, 1979; Smith, 1902; History.com, 2018). Their goal was to teach English and Christianity to the local Alaska Native population. Jackson later helped to recruit other educator missionaries and open new missionary schools within the territory (Mitchell, 1997). He later became influential in the effort to secure federal funding for school programs for Alaska Natives. In 1880, he successfully lobbied Congress to pass legislation to fund schooling programs for Alaska Natives. With the passage of the Organic Act in 1884, federal funding became available for schools (Mitchell, 1997; Barnhardt, 2001), and in June
9 To protect the anonymity of project stakeholders, these sources were redacted. 10 To protect the anonymity of project stakeholders, this source was redacted. 11 To protect the anonymity of project stakeholders, this source was redacted.
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1885, the first Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schooling program opened for Alaska Natives (Mitchell, 1997). Alaska Native education remained segregated until its desegregation in 1929 (Mitchell, 1997; Barnhardt, 2001; Kiffer, 2014; Haycox, 1986).12 One goal of the schools was to assimilate Alaska Natives/American Indians into mainstream White society (Mitchell, 1997; Barnhardt, 2001; Haycox, 1986).13 Children were not permitted to speak native languages as a strict “English only” policy was imposed, and “instruction was provided in the three ‘R’s,’ in industrial skills, and in patriotic citizenship” (Barnhardt, 2001, p. 16).
In the continental United States, schools operated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) were reformed in 1934 with the Indian Reorganization Act and the Johnson-O’Malley Act, resulting in effective state control over BIA schools. However, in Alaska, BIA day and boarding school programs would continue to be in complete federal governmental control until 1952 when Alaska entered into its first Johnson-O’Malley contract. It was not until 1985 that control of all BIA-funded schools was completely transferred to the state of Alaska (Barnhardt, 2001).
After Alaska’s successful bid for statehood in 1959, educational reform for Alaska Native education continued. In the mid-1960s and 1970s, policies regarding Alaska Native education began to incorporate more Alaska Native control over Alaska Native schools and pushed to provide equal education for Alaska Native students. By the 1990s, the majority of Alaska Native students were provided a K-12 education within their home communities (Barnhardt, 2001).
12 Kiffer (2014) and Haycox (1986) were redacted to protect the anonymity of project stakeholders.
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Alaska Native/American Indian Families in Springfield
The Alaska Native/American Indian adults who were interviewed had diverse backgrounds, educational backgrounds and family dynamics. Examples of the interview responses regarding background and family dynamics appear below:
So I have a partner and we have a child together. I have a child from a previous
relationship so there’s four of us in the household. I have a 17-year-old that’s struggling with school…I have an 11-year-old, (An Adult)
My husband is...trying to find a different job and he wants to go work
down at the Coast Guard base because out there they choose veterans over anybody that’s super-qualified, but- and it’s, for me, I mean I never got an education, a higher education besides going to an uh, a design school for flowers. (An Adult)
I’ve been a commercial fisherman throughout my life, [Inaudible] which is seasonal, and it’s seasonal [job], you make a substantial amount of money, but when the season is over, uh, for a short period of time, you’ve got to have something else to fall back on
immediately … So, [once] commercial fishing’s over, I go to work on jobs such as painting, and carpentry. (An Adult)
I had a place in the fishing community, but I had a family coming and I knew I needed, in this culture, I needed more money to pay for having a family. So, I knew I needed to find other skills and education and so I paid my way there and then they paid for my
schooling and housing when I was going to school. (R3)
I started out with getting my Bachelors in elementary education, graduated in 2005 with that Bachelor’s degree, then went, excuse me, I taught for six years, I believe, ranging from fourth grade through eighth grade. Then during the course of my pregnancy with my second child because I was high risk decided that that was a good time to maybe take a step back and had an opportunity through the PITAS scholarship to go get a grad school education, and wasn’t sure at the time whether to pursue a literacy specialist or, excuse me, reading specialist or educational technology because both seemed viable. I decided to go with the reading specialist because everyone needs to know how to read and wasn’t quite sure about the educational technology, but through the course of those next three years, I ended up doing both, so I have a degree as a reading specialist and as an
educational technology, they don’t call it a specialist, but I have a Master’s degree in that. (An Adult and Educator).
The following interview excerpt also provided an indication of the diversity of native families in the area.
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Interviewer: I was wondering how long have you…and your family lived in [Springfield]?
Respondent: Um, um, myself, um, my, my mom and dad's family since 1964. Interviewer: May I ask what brought your family to [Springfield]?
Respondent: We were in a village…and had no high school, no hospital, uh, [Inaudible] midnight and my mom just had enough of that, so.
Interviewer: …what did your family do when they got over to [Springfield]? If you don't mind me asking-
Respondent: Um- no not at all- my, um-m-m, dad worked in maintenance, and my mom worked at the hospital, part-time, [Inaudible] kids [Inaudible] kids.
Interviewer: Wow. Um, could you please tell me about your experiences living in [Springfield]?
Respondent: I was one of sixteen children, so it was very very...great growing up. The, uh, the person who lived in the [Inaudible] apartments when I got here, had [Inaudible] two apartments and get all of their kids in.
An adult respondent and employer made the following comment regarding the diversity of families and backgrounds:
Other than being born here, it’s funny because I was born here, raised here, doing
grammar school and middle school, high school here, and played sports, little league ball, Babe Ruth ball, I was looking for a job as a kid and when I was about 12, right here on [street name] Street, I washed windows for all the mama/papa businesses before Walmart showed up, I did [Springfield] Florist, [name] Apartments, [name]’s dress shop, the trading post and just for a little bit of pocket change as a young kid. I’m still on [street name] Street, I haven’t gone anywhere (An Adult and Employer).
Many native families who live in Springfield settled in Springfield from other
communities in Alaska or the continental United States and/or were born in or had family ties in Springfield. Native families also seemed to have a variety of and diverse educational and training experiences which seemed to either help or hinder their employment opportunities in Springfield. Work opportunities and family ties seemed to have attracted families to live in Springfield.
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Similar to the diversity that was reported within the native community in Springfield, each family had a unique schooling experience as well. Some adult interviewees stated that they had family members who attended native boarding school programs, participated in urban relocation programs and experienced discrimination and/or racism in the mid-20th century. For example, one interviewee who attended the school district after schools were fully integrated felt that some native cultural practices were being discouraged. However, despite the discrimination he/she felt, he/she believed that his/her school taught him/her vocational skills which served him/her later in life. Historically, Alaska Native students faced school segregation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Schools were integrated after a court case ruled in the favor of an Alaska Native student who was refused entry into a White school in 1929 (Kiffer, 2014; Haycox, 1986). 14 Alaskan Natives also historically experienced Jim Crow laws and racial segregation in Alaska (Kiffer, 2008; Alaskool.org, n.d.). No interviewees expressed that they experienced Jim Crow laws nor community segregation based on their tribal heritage. However, some adults spoke about their family members’ experiences in boarding school. This interview excerpt is an example from an adult respondent:
Interviewer: Was your grandma sent to boarding school or how did she end up in, or your family, end up in [school name]? If you don’t mind me asking.
Respondent: No, not at all. [School name] was a school for native children and my mother was sent there at 15 by herself into a boarding, I mean, it wasn’t a good story, but it provided them with a place where they could at least get a partial education.
Interviewer: So did she volunteer to go there or…?
Respondent: That was probably her only option for school at the time so her mother sent her there, and her mother, my grandmother, like I said, she was born in [city name], she was raised in a Russian orphanage and I don’t know if she had much public schooling at all, and she worked in the seasonal cannery business, crab cannery, fish cannery type
14 Kiffer (2014) and Haycox (1986) were redacted to protect the anonymity of project stakeholders.
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stuff, and she had three kids and I just think that was the available resource and through the native program, they sent her to [school name]. …Yeah. 15 year old sent away from home like that to a large school with other natives that you don’t know. Had to be difficult.
However, most native interviewees themselves attended fully integrated schools. Schooling experiences described by participants reflected the schooling environment of
integrated schools in the recent decades and in the 2015-2016 school year. These reflections will be explored in the next chapter.
Industries and Schooling
Major economies in Springfield that were mentioned by most participants were the subsistence economy, the fishing and timber industries (resource-based, extraction economies), the tourism industry, the shipyard and ferry, tribal-run businesses and small, family-owned businesses. Several industries are described in the following sections.
Subsistence Economy
Many interviewees felt that the types of jobs available to them seemed to be more blue- collar and seasonal work and that, given the state of the economy, many of Springfield’s
residents found it difficult to sustain their families. For example, one adult stated: “employment in [Springfield] is kind of tough. Um, a lot of the jobs here are seasonal, and it kind of lends towards people just working for a half-year and trying to save money or [scrape by] in the winter.”
Due to the nature of the available work to most residents, many benefited from
subsistence hunting, fishing, and gathering (Alaska Department of Fish and Game, n.d.) as well as from public assistance such as state oil revenue distributions (Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation, 2018; Alaska Department of Revenue, 2018 ) and tribal housing funds
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([Springfield Corporation] Programs, 2012).15 Some participants mentioned that hunting and fishing were of a way of life for some residents. For instance, an adult respondent stated: “Well this last year we recently got out and did some fishing and hunting … well yeah we had hunting a couple years ago, done fishing and, um camping.”
Furthermore, when native adults were interviewed, many expressed that traditional native traditional lifestyles and practices played an important role in their personal development,
allowing them to learn local subsistence hunting, fishing and gathering practices. For example, one adult stated the following:
All of us knew. When I was 12 was when my father, the big test with me, see if had I gotten there, you know? About to become a man type thing. They took me to [island name] Island, said, “I’ll be back to get you,” and you go to shore and he lets you off and you survive. You get to be there a week and build your own shelter, gather your own foods, and then he comes back, picks you up and that was it, and if you lived, great. Means that you’re ready, and it’s the way he was taught. A lot of [tribespeople] were taught that too, survival and big test and so I went out there and I survived. You learn how to make fire in the rain, you know? It’s easy. … in our culture, the kids are the woman’s kids. The husband doesn’t claim the kids. The uncles, her brothers, are supposed to claim the kids. … But it was just a different way when I was growing up. …Kids… you see, the kids can’t hardly do anything because they’re missing not only the training but you used to have your uncles involved and then the girls, it was the aunties involved, grandmothers involved in your upbringing who would teach you what you need to know how to survive. My grandmother went out of her way, said, “I’m gonna teach you to be a good husband. These are the things you need to know. Your uncles will teach you how to be a good hunter and provider, these are the things you need to know.” That was it. There was no great message or anything, it was, “this is what you need to do to be a good member of the tribe, provide for yourself.” There were consequences if you were a bum. You got kicked out, allowed to go away and die somewhere, you know? Or if you were kicked out, then you were forced to learn how to live that lifestyle. You could earn your way back into clan. …luckily I had my grandmother teaching me all this traditional stuff. …My grandmother taught me all this stuff and my other grandmother, my father’s mother, taught me all about the different…about the relationships and families and names and who’s chief and who’s next and all this stuff. … You have to come by it by the things that you do. Not that you want it, but because you’re naturally, not a leader, but you’re, it’s something different. Leader is a western culture [concept], we had leaders for war, leaders for peace, leaders for spirituality in our native countries, even hers. You had people who were the leaders and it was passed on to, you were picked, you know? And
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you were taught how to do these things, how to behave. Some of it’s hard to explain