Constructivism in professional development

Professional development with a primary focus on transformation places teachers at the centre of their learning. Constructivism is the context in which transformation can be realised: where the focus is on individual teachers and their role in constructing meaning. Sparks (1994:27) suggests that constructivist teaching occurs best through constructivist professional development opportunities. Sparks proposes that teachers need professional development activities such as action research, discourse with peers, reflective practices and journal keeping to make sense of their own teaching practices. Teachers assume a dual role: they assume the role of teaching their learners, but, when engaging in professional development activities, they assume the role of learners and co-learners who become responsible for their continued learning in order to transform their core function of teaching.

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Hoover (1996) asserts that the central idea of constructivism is that knowledge is constructed. Learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This is an important aspect of professional development: teachers possess vast amounts of prior learning in the form of their initial teacher training and all the learning they acquire during their years of teaching experience. Another feature of constructivism is that learning takes place as a result of active, cognitive processes undertaken by individuals as they organise and make sense of their experiences (Phelps, 2002:2; Hoover, 1996; Le Cornu & Peters, 2005:50).

Rock and Wilson (2005:79) propose that social constructivism stresses the idea that individual learning occurs as a result of social interactions, such as, social negotiation, discussion, reflection, and explanation. It is important for teachers to be engaged in activities that require verbal interaction. Teachers engage regularly with beginner teachers and experienced teachers. Professional development therefore includes more than formal training sessions. Teachers need to understand that their collaboration and discussions with other teachers form an important part of their development.

Osterman (1998) sees constructivism as a theory about knowledge and reflective practice as a professional development strategy that originated in a constructivist paradigm. If the main purpose of professional development is to improve practice and ultimately learner performance, then it is imperative that teachers reflect on their existing practices. Constructivism requires that teachers reflect on all aspects of their teaching since teachers are themselves learners. Teachers should examine their planning, the materials they use, their classroom environment, their attitudes and expectations, most importantly the needs of their learners (Sparks, 1994). As life-long learners, teachers realise the need for self-reflection is important for professional growth. Teachers need to teach their learners to become reflective learners (Richardson, 2007). Constructivism and reflective practice acknowledge the importance of exploring existing paradigms as an element of the learning process. When teachers explore the beliefs and assumptions of learners, they are able to

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identify strengths and weaknesses in order to assist learners in assessing their knowledge.

Pitsoe and Maila (2012:320) argue that constructivist professional development is matched with the beliefs and postulations of the emergent world-view and includes the following as features of constructivist professional development:

 It rejects the perception of a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach since reality is generated through procedures of social exchange and is historically positioned;

 Social constructivists are concerned with the communal generation of meaning between human beings: knowledge is regarded as relational, exploratory and generally perceptual;

 Constructivist professional development can be represented as fluid, systemic and largely hierarchical;

 The whole is always greater than the sum of its parts, and paradoxically, the whole is contained in each part of the whole: no whole is complete in itself; and

 Constructivist professional development emphasises both social and global transformation where the fundamental objective is the enhancement and achievement of a human community.

Constructivism has important implications for teaching and professional development activities. Huang (2002) discusses six principles that can be applied to adult learners engaged in a constructivist learning environment. The first principle is that learning should be interactive. This interaction can be facilitated through group activities and discussions. The second principle is that collaborative learning should be facilitated through reflective responses and the collaborative construction of new knowledge. Third, the need for a safe environment that encourages the sharing of ideas and the promotion of questions is emphasised. The fourth principle is the provision of authentic learning that will equip learners (in this case the teachers) for similar real- life experiences. The fifth principle is that constructivism and the theory of andragogy both emphasise the importance of learner-centred learning. Lastly, constructivist

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learning provides opportunities for high-quality learning by presenting learning experiences that are closely aligned with the reality of the adult learners.

Le Cornu and Peters (2005:59) express the opinion that, for teachers to transform their teaching towards constructivist methods, they need to be supported in their own development. Hoover (1996) emphasises that teachers teach as they are taught, not as they are told. It is important to remember that, if teachers are expected to rely on and adopt a constructivist approach in their teaching, professional development must itself embrace these approaches to teaching. Teachers need to be engaged in activities that result in transformation in classrooms. The following diagram is a summary of constructivism applied to adult learners.

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Prior knowledge

Meaningful and authentic knowledge and skills

Creating learning environments

1. Self-directed learning 2. Critical reflection 3. Experiential learning 4. Life-long learning 5. Individual differences 6. Motivation to learn 7. Readiness to learn 1. Active learning

2. Real life learning

3. Prior knowledge 4. Reasoning process 5. Social interaction Constructivism (Dewey, Vygotsky) Adult-learning theory (Knowles) 1. Real-world 2. Case-based 3. Social negotiation 4. Safe 5. Motivating 6. Learner-centred 7. Experiential

1. Critical thinking skills

2. Social skills 3. Individual differences 4. Highly autonomy 1. Interactive learning 2. Collaborative learning 3. Facilitating learning 4. Authentic learning 5. Learner-centred learning

6. High quality learning

Learning principles

Constructing

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Like any other theory, constructivism has been criticised for various reasons. While Phillips (1995) praised constructivism for emphasising learners’ active participation and the recognition of the social nature of learning, he criticised aspects of constructivism. His criticism was aimed at its tendency towards epistemological relativism, or towards treating knowledge as completely a matter of socio-political practices or for its ‘quasi-religious or ideological aspect’ (Phillips,1995:11). Furthermore, constructivism has been considered as elitist by critics who claim that constructivism and progressive educational theories have been more effective with learners from privileged backgrounds.