Constructivism in quality teaching

The average, present-day classroom has a great diversity of learners: it represents learners from diverse backgrounds and individuals with varying strengths. As such, it demands that the teacher adapts and customises his or her teaching to accommodate the varying needs and abilities of learners. Kalpana (2014:28) argues that teachers should be prepared to ‘shift gears from what has been to what is emerging’ in order to maximise learning so that the learners and teacher can jointly construct knowledge. If the objectives of teaching at schools are to be achieved, teachers of different subjects should, by means of constructivist teaching practices, change learners’ engagement in respective subjects from rote learning and memorisation of facts to meaningful analysis, synthesis, application and evaluation (Yilmaz, 2008:171). He maintains the following about constructivist teaching:

… constructivist teaching affords learners meaningful, concrete experiences in which they can look for patterns, construct their own questions, and structure their own models, concepts and strategies. The classroom becomes a micro- society in which learners jointly engage in activity, discourse and reflection (Yilmaz, 2008:161).

Yilmaz suggests that, in a constructivist classroom, emphasis is laid on the process of learning and not the product. In a subject such as Accounting this is important. Learners are given recognition for the processes they follow and not only for correct answers. Kim (2005:9) acknowledges three theoretical assumptions aligned to constructivist teaching. Learning is an active, constructive process rather than a practice of knowledge acquisition. Teaching is about supporting the learner’s constructive processing of understanding rather than delivering information. Teaching is about placing the learner first, at the centre of the learning process. Kalpana (2014:28) suggests that in constructivist classrooms, knowledge is constructed from individuals’ prior knowledge and experience or collaboratively by what learners contribute. The environment is learner-centred and the focus is on learning rather than teaching. Learners are encouraged to become independent thinkers. Yilmaz (2008:170) similarly acknowledges the importance of what learners bring to the classroom in the form of their backgrounds, belief systems, assumptions and prior knowledge. He argues that teachers need to recognise, respect and utilise these

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attributes. Teachers need to create an environment that prompts learners to engage with, and challenge, existing understandings and beliefs.

The following table illustrates how constructivist classrooms differ from traditional classrooms:

Table 2.1: Traditional classrooms versus constructivist classrooms

Traditional classrooms Constructivist classrooms Curriculum is presented part to whole,

emphasising basic skills.

Curriculum is presented whole to part, emphasising big concepts.

Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly valued.

Pursuit of questioning by students is highly valued.

Heavy reliance on textbooks and workbooks. Heavy reliance on primary sources of data and manipulative materials.

Learners are viewed as blank slates onto which the teacher stamps information.

Learners are viewed as thinkers with emerging theories about the world. Teachers behave didactically, disseminating

information to learners.

Teachers behave in an interactive manner mediating the environment for learners. Teachers seek the correct answer to validate

learning.

Teachers seek the learners’ points of view in order to understand learners’ present conceptions for use in subsequent lessons.

Assessment of learning is viewed as separate from teaching and occurs mostly through testing.

Assessment of learning is interwoven with teaching and occurs through observations of learners at work and through learner portfolios.

Learners primarily work alone. Learners primarily work in groups. Brooks and Brooks (1993:17)

This study proposes that teachers of Accounting need to move away from a traditional classroom mind-set to a teaching style and mode of classroom management aligned to constructivism. The issue of context is important. Fataar (2007) argues that a shift from traditional methodology to learner-centred, constructivist teacher development is not easy to implement in rural and township schools. The context in which many teachers find themselves does not always allow for the shift to a constructivist classroom. Many teachers slip back into a

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traditional style of teaching and classroom management which is more of an information transfer than the mutual discovery and creation of rooted knowledge.

Multiple perspectives, genuine activities and real-world situations are some of the premises often linked to constructivist learning and teaching (Murphy, 1997:11). Another important concept for constructivism which Murphy (1997:11) cites is scaffolding: a process of guiding learners from what they know to what they need to know. This process allows learners to perform tasks that they would normally not be able to perform without assistance and support from teachers. Scaffolding is consistent with Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development which looks at how learners progress from what they can do on their own to learning with the assistance of the teacher (Powell & Kalina, 2009:244).

Below is a summary of the characteristics of constructivist teaching and learning.

 Multiple perspectives and representations of concepts and content are presented and encouraged;

 Goals and objectives are derived from learning or, in negotiation with, the teacher or system;

 The role of the teacher is to guide, monitor, coach, tutor and facilitate;

 Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are provided to encourage metacognition, self-analysis, self-regulation, self-reflection and self- awareness;

 The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling learning;

 Learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic, authentic and represent the natural complexities of the real world;  Primary sources of data are used to ensure authentic and real-world

experiences;

 An emphasis on knowledge construction as opposed to replication or rote learning;

 Knowledge construction takes place in individual contexts and through social negotiation and collaboration;

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 Problem-solving, higher-order thinking skills and deep understanding are stressed;

 Errors provide opportunities for insight into learners’ previous knowledge constructs;

 Exploration is favoured in order to encourage learners to seek knowledge independently;

 Learners are provided with opportunities for apprenticeship learning - there is an increasing complexity of tasks, skills and acquisition of knowledge;  Collaborative and co-operative learning are promoted in order to expose

learners to alternative points of view;

 Scaffolding is facilitated to assist students to perform beyond the limits of their ability; and

 Assessment is authentic and integrated with teaching (Murphy, 1997:12- 13).

This research study attempted to determine the characteristics that lead to quality teaching in Accounting. The literature review and the chapter on the findings revealed many of the characteristics mentioned above associated with constructivism.