Theories of professional development

In order to understand existing professional development activities with the aim of suggesting a model for teachers of Accounting that will enhance quality teaching and ultimately learner performance, professional development is viewed, in this research, through the lens of the following theories: each one of which plays a separate yet crucial role in professional development:

 Desimone’s key features  The nine models of Kennedy  Guskey’s alternative model

Professional development engagements can take the form of varied activities including the formal and informal. Desimone (2009:183) identifies five key features, which should form the basis of an effective professional development experience.

 Content focus is considered to be the most influential characteristic. Activities should focus on subject content and how learners learn that content.

 Active learning includes opportunities for teachers to engage in active learning such as observing expert teachers or being observed, followed by interactive feedback and discussion.

 Coherence is the extent to which professional development is consistent with teachers’ knowledge and beliefs.

 Duration of activities is important. Intellectual and pedagogical change require professional development activities that are of sufficient duration including the span and number of hours spent on the activity.

 Collective participation requires teachers from the same school, grade or department to engage in joint professional development activities which can lead to collaboration and discourse; influential tools in teacher development.

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Kennedy (2005:236) identifies nine models for continued professional development.

 The training model

In this model, the expert delivers the training and the teacher is passive. Training is delivered predominantly at a central venue away from the school and lacks a connection with the classroom context.

 The award-bearing model

Here, teachers are required to complete an award-bearing or qualification-related programme of study. The Advanced Certificate in Education is an example of such a training course.

 The deficit model

This is where professional development activities are intended to redress a weakness in teacher performance or in the outcomes of their learners. This model suggests that the blame for deficiencies in the system and in learners’ performance is placed squarely on the teachers’ shoulders.

 The cascade model

This model involves teachers or officials attending training activities and then cascading or disseminating the information to colleagues or other teachers. Knowledge or information is viewed as the most important aspect of the activity where context is not taken into account.

 The standards-based model

This model relies on a behaviourist approach focusing on the competencies of individual teachers resulting in rewards.

59  The coaching/mentoring model

The unique characteristic of this model is the one-to-one relation between two persons where coaching is more skills-based and mentoring involves an element of counselling. Professional learning can take place within the school context and is enriched through discussions with colleagues.

 The community of practice model

Although similar to the coaching/mentoring model, a key difference is that the community of practice generally involves more than two people. Learning within this community occurs as a result of that community and its collaborations and not only as a result of planned activities.

 The action research model

This model recognises the participants themselves, in this case teachers, as the researchers, with a view to improving the quality of their practice. It allows teachers to engage critically and question their own practice. It allows for transformative practice and professional autonomy.

 The transformative model

Central to this model is the combination of practices and conditions that support transformation.

Kennedy (2005:247) suggests that opportunities for professional learning and development can be placed on a continuum. The purpose of the model can be allocated to one of three categories: transmission, transition or transformation. The table below, representing this framework, suggests an increasing capacity for professional independence from transmission through transitional to transformative categories.

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Table 2.9: Kennedy’s framework for analysing professional development activities Model of continuing professional

development

Purpose of model

The training model

The award-bearing model The deficit model

The cascade model

Transmission

The standards-based model The coaching/mentoring model The community of practice model

Transitional

The action research model The transformative model

Transformative

Guskey (2002:383) proposes that the three major aims of professional development programmes are transformation in the classroom practices of teachers, change in their attitudes and beliefs, and change in the learning outcomes of their learners. Guskey suggests an alternative model where the sequence in which these outcomes occur is regarded as significant. According to this model, significant change in teachers’ attitudes and beliefs will take place only after there is evidence of improved learning by students, as a result of changes made in classroom practices. The experience of successful implementation changes teachers’ attitudes and beliefs: they believe that it works because they have seen that it works and it is this experience or realisation that informs their attitudes and beliefs. This is illustrated in the figure below:

Figure 2.5: Guskey’s alternative model Professional development Change in classroom practices Change in student learning Change in teachers’ attitudes & beliefs Increasing capacity for professional autonomy

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Archibald, Coggshall, Croft and Goe (2011:16) identify the following five characteristics of quality professional development:

 Alignment with school goals, state and district standards, assessments and other professional learning activities including formative teacher evaluations;  A focus on core content and the modelling of teaching strategies linked to the

content;

 Opportunities for active learning of new teaching strategies;  Opportunities for collaboration among teachers; and

 Inclusion of entrenched follow-up and feedback.