TABLE 1: EVOLUTION OF SCUDDER’S STAGE FRAMEWORK OVER THE YEARS
2.3.1. DESCRIPTION OF SCUDDER’S FSF
2.3.1. DESCRIPTION OF SCUDDER’S FSF
Stage One, “Planning for Resettlement before Removal ” (Scudder 2009:30), deals largely with the protracted pre‐resettlement period when the government policymakers decide that people in a specific location are going to be moved, including the identification of relocation areas and plans on how the move will be implemented (Scudder and Colson 1982). Once the decision has been made, investments by the government and or business enterprises operating in the proposed location for the dam are either reduced or halted. In addition, increased anxieties and frustrations due to information that they will soon be removed subsequently weakens resettlers’ enthusiasm to improve their livelihood strategies
or their land, a condition that is followed by the gradual decline of their living standards. McCully (1996:72) also adds that during that time “properties prices fall, banks refuse to give loans, and no new schools or health centres are built”.
Existing facilities may be closed long before people move out of the area. It is also a time when the potentially affected people begin to become involved in the relocation process. During this stage the resettlers experience considerable stress, disorientation and trauma, intensified by insufficient information about the
impending project that they neither understand, nor believe what they are being told. Sometimes, contrary political propaganda run by different interest groups on why they are being relocated or where they will relocate to further worsens their stress and uncertainties about their future. Early participation in the planning and decision‐making processes by the people to be displaced is central to addressing their concerns and worries (Scudder 2005a). Prior to relocation, Chief Sinazongwe explained the worries of his people during a radio broadcast interview, in which he said that:
“... Our big worry is the Kariba scheme. Our main complaint is this, we have been living here for many years and we have been used to our land. But now they (government) are moving us away to new areas where we have never lived. This moving will upset not only my area, but also the areas of all the chiefs of the valley. We do not like to be moved about in any way like this.
Now they tell us that they will send us to live in the hills, and they are really determined to get us away from here. It is not only leaving our land that worries us. What worries us is that they are taking us to the mountains where there are plenty of tsetse flies, where there is not enough land for our people to plough. We do not know how we shall make our living there; as for our cattle, we cannot hope to keep them. We shall therefore remain poor people. Perhaps after many years when people have gotten used to the place, they may be happy, but now they are all not satisfied.”
(NAZ/5198/SP4/12/98 – the verbatim report on interviews‐ by Noah Matongo 1955)
Scudder suggests that decisions taken during this stage have an effect on the extent and severity of the coping and adjusting stage and could possibly prevent the potential development stage from occurring. Using experiences of the Kariba case, Scudder (2005a) argues that the involvement of the affected people in the decision ‐
making processes, complemented by their access to basic infrastructure and sustainable development opportunities, are key triggers in transforming the resettlers into project beneficiaries. Scudder provides examples of development opportunities, such as tsetse fly control, improvement of livestock and rain‐fed agriculture, fisheries, feeder roads, schools and clinics that assisted the Gwembe Tonga’s transformation into project beneficiaries. This stage ends when the population is removed and relocated in new sites.
Stage Two, “Adjusting and Coping”, which can take from one to a few years for the majority of the resettlers, involves the move and, typically, the first few years thereafter. Scudder argues that this stage is a period of maximum stress, characterized by risk‐averse and conservative behaviour, triggered by the
uncertainty of moving into a new habitat, and by a decline in living standards. Stress is at its maximum for three main reasons: firstly, the move itself is generally stressful and an overwhelming experience because of the activities involved such as the packing of personal belongings, movement of people and their livestock; secondly, specific to the Kariba case, within their new habitat, the resettlers had to deal with a myriad of labour ‐intensive tasks such as clearing and ploughing new fields large enough to deal with a single harvest rather than the usual double harvests of their former Zambezi alluvial gardens; and also with constructing new houses within a shorter period of time, often with inadequate labour resources (Colson 1971;
Scudder 2004); and thirdly, the resettlers have to cope and adapt to tensions and conflicts arising from their experience with their new neighbours and host
populations, some of whom may be of different ethnic social categories with conflicting cultural practices.
Living standards can also be expected to drop resulting from the following:
once the decision has been made to proceed with the dam, government and private investments to improve public services like schools and clinics, or funding business ventures to improve the standards of living are either reduced or halted, thereby depriving the affected people of much desired social services and sources of income
(Scudder 2004). Others tend to lose income‐ earning opportunities from seasonal wage labour, as in the case of the Gwembe Tonga who had to return home to prepare for their move (Colson 1971). In 2015, key informants for the research for this thesis, who comprised hosts and first generation resettlers, said that their resettlement period was characterized by the following: a) the majority of people moving uplands within the same chiefdom; b) some resettlement sites were near host villages that had people who were ‘just like them’ i.e. ‐spoke the same language and had the same cultural practices; c) some resettlers already had established linkages with the host people through trading and beer parties and funerals.
Presumably, as a result, the resettlers were less stressed since they relocated to a familiar environment, and did not experience major incidents of conflicts or disease outbreaks associated with removal of the majority of resettlers. However, the people in Simamba may have experienced a significant decline in their living standards as after receiving their financial compensation, there was very little follow‐up assistance by the federal and successive governments to help people change their crop production and livestock management to match with their new habitat, until 30 years after resettlement when the NGO under study came to their assistance.
In addition, Scudder (2004) further identifies the loss of social capital, such as family kinship and social networks that are crucial for people’s survival and livelihood support, as also contributing to deterioration of living standards. One of Scudder ‘s (2005a:36) main arguments during this stage is that increased access to sustainable development opportunities by the resettlers is needed if rising standards of living, including productivity, are to enable and to inspire them to progress to stages three and four.
Stage Three, “Community Formation and Economic Development”, is
expressed by increased innovative activities being undertaken by the majority of the resettlers. It is reached when most of the resettlers have re‐established themselves economically and are settling down socially. Individuals start risk‐taking and
innovating, re‐establishing leadership and investing in economic activities in a
potentially self‐sustaining manner. Living standards for the majority tend to rise.
Based on the Kariba experience, Scudder (2009: 41) asserts that the standards of living for the majority rose as a result of the following three government
interventions, which were: (i) the eradication of tsetse flies, which allowed the resettlers to buy more oxen for increased crop cultivation; (ii) the provision of cash compensation that allowed resettlers to buy cattle and to educate their children;
and (iii) the special fisheries programmes, that was initially restricted to resettlers to enable them to earn incomes.
During this stage, Scudder (2005a: 37) argues that two actions must happen:
firstly, resettlers must profoundly transform their behaviours from being risk averse to risk taking so that they can utilize the opportunities being made available to them;
and secondly, sustainable development opportunities must be provided. However, Scudder emphasizes that such sustainable development opportunities must be accompanied by three requirements. These are: (a) appropriate government policies, (b) a stable political and economic environment; and (c) necessary infrastructure, such as feeder roads, social services and market centres, without which impoverishment could result, as was the case with the Gwembe Tonga people when development opportunities could not be sustained by the government,
following Zambia’s economic downturn that happened between 1970s and 1980s.
Similarly, in 2015, key informants for this research said that a major benefit of the resettlement programmes was the controlling of tsetse flies that enabled some families to start keeping cattle. Cattle were bought using revenue from the fishing industry. Before resettlement, there were no cattle in Simamba because of the high prevalence of tsetse flies. Resettlers lost most of their cattle during the period of economic downturn, a period when veterinary service significantly declined, resulting in a sharp rise in cattle diseases and cattle deaths. Simamba being closer to the international boundaries with Zimbabwe also suffered the effects of the Zimbabwe’s liberation war that affected the regular activities of people (see details in Chapter Five).
Scudder admits that measuring the commencement of such a transformation from risk ‐averse to risk ‐taking behaviour could be a daunting task. Thus he
suggests indicators such as: feeling at home, achieving self‐sufficiency in food production, and the re‐establishment of community institutions such as burial societies, co‐operatives and the re‐emergence of religious shrines at both household and community levels, are indicative of such a transformation (Scudder 2005a).
Stage Four, “Handing Over and Incorporation”, involves the handing over of local production systems and community leadership to second‐generation residents, and their integration into wider territorial; and political and economic networks.
This signals the successful end of the resettlement process. Scudder argues that three conditions must be satisfied. These are firstly, that the second generation of resettlers must be willing to take over from the first generation and must continue to improve their standards of living to a level comparable to that of their neighbours;
Secondly, projects must hand over activities and services to resettlers, a task, which could be problematic as Scudder explains. Scudder, (2005a: 40) uses his experience with the Lesotho Highlands Development Authority (LHDA) to highlight the
challenges of handing over, for example, of project medical facilities and roads to government agencies, compounded by organizational jealousies that resulted in line ministries refusing to take over assets they did not initiate or that were developed at their expense. Thirdly, the resettlers must have political and institutional powers, as well as the self‐confidence to compete for their share of the country’s resources, such as participating in government‐ sponsored nationwide programmes in agriculture, health and education.
Based on her experience of the Allegany Seneca people who were resettled following the construction of the Kinzua dam, in United States of America, Bilharz (1998:155) established that handing over was done to a generation born at the ‘old place’ and not necessarily a generation born and raised in the resettled communities as earlier observed by Scudder (1993:134). Bilharz attributes this to the fact that during stage two, the parents did not prepare groundwork for the transfer of
knowledge to their children for political activism crucial for the final handover to occur. She says that the reasons for these differences i.e. handover processes, will vary from situation to situation whereas the model suggests a more homogeneous response than is found on the ground. Instead for the Senecas, she has noted that the final stage could result in the upsurge of political activism and cultural
conservatism as the resettlers assert themselves to the neighbours and the government that they would never be treated as powerless minorities. She
concludes that appropriate data is required to analyse the situation better. Similarly, the 2015 research for this thesis has shown that in Simamba, while the first
generation resettlers have handed over the leadership, such as village headman roles and responsibilities to the second‐generation resettlers. However, the first generation resettlers have found it difficult to hand‐over traditional practices such as management of shrines and other rituals for farming, fishing, and hunting that characterised the life of the Gwembe Tonga before and immediately after
resettlement. Difficulties are being experienced because the second generation of resettlers have become christians and have adopted contemporary ways of life found in urban town such as dressing and lifestyle hence are not willing to perform some traditional practices and other rituals.
Using his experiences with the Gwembe Tonga people, Scudder (2005a) observed that while the majority of the resettlers actually reached Stage Three, they failed to reach stage four. He list the following conditions as reasons: (i) inadequate arable land for the second generation resettlers resulted in a reduction in crop yields because of exhausted soils; (ii) Living conditions declined because of poor rural‐
urban terms of trade and unfavourable government policies which disadvantaged largely the rural dwellers; (iii) the Zimbabwe liberation war that affected
provisioning of public services such as control of tsetse flies, schools and health, particularly for the Gwembe Tonga living in villages closer to the international boundary with Zimbabwe; and (iv) unexpected occurrences such as increased domestic violence, witchcraft fears, crime, drought, HIV/AIDs and cholera disease outbreaks further undermined their situation (Scudder 2009).
2.3.2. COMMENTS ON AND CRITICISMS OF SCUDDER’S FOUR STAGE THEORETICAL