THEORIES ON NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs)
3.7. THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF DEVELOPMENT NGOS IN ZAMBIA ZAMBIA
3.7.3. THE NGO CONTEXT DURING THE MULTI‐PARTY STATE PERIOD
However, in the aftermath of the Kaunda regime in 1991, and with the onset of the multiparty politics, President Fredrick Chiluba, during his election campaign promised to remove all constitutional barriers preventing citizens from enjoying civil liberties (CIVICUS 2010). Thus, the introduction of multiparty democracy is believed to have created an enabling environment for NGO participation (Corella et al 2006).
The study conducted by CIVICUS (2010) on the challenges of civil society groupings in Zambia found that there was a significant decline of NGO activities soon after the introduction of the multiparty political system. That was because, it was believed that most NGOs, particularly those involved in advocacy on governance, democracy, human rights and rule of law among others, had achieved their principal objectives:
which, were to end Kaunda’s rule, reintroduce the multiparty system and to call for early elections in 1991 (CIVICUS 2010, citing Sichone 1996). In addition, during his presidential election campaign, Chiluba promised to provide an enabling
environment for the participation of civil society in the governance of the country, hence, most organizations identified themselves with the ideology of his
administration, and subsequently became less active. But, following the aftershock
of the newly introduced Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP), as part of the external debt relief conditionality packages that were sanctioned by the World Bank (WB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the government’s social services provisioning deteriorated considerably. As a result of the structural adjustment policies, spending on public services significantly reduced. Unsurprisingly, the government was unable to effectively provide social services, thereby creating a gap that was subsequently taken up by NGOs, most of which either were newly
established or had just registered in Zambia (Erdmann and Simutanyi 2003).
Consequently, by 1996, 1000 CSOs had been registered, subsequently reaching 10,000 by 2003, including the unregistered informal organizations located in rural areas (Fiedler‐Conradi 2003; Corella et al 2006). The 1990s period also witnessed the formation and consolidation of umbrella organizations and informal networks/alliances (Maitra ND). The newly established NGOs took interest in concerns regarding gender equality, human rights, rule of law, civic education, and election monitoring and poverty alleviation among others.
While NGO/government relations were generally confrontational on for instance, issues of rule of law, governance, human rights and democracy. However, the government was willing to tolerate those NGOs that were tackling issues of poverty reduction and other social service provisioning (Kaliba 2014; Maitra ND).
But NGOs that were tackling issues of governance and democracy were perceived as advancing foreign interests at the expense of those of the country. Hence, the government accused such NGOs of being a danger to the operations of the state, as such, many leaders of such NGOs were often arrested (Mweshi 2009), while their organizations risked being de‐registered. However, towards the end of Chiluba’s rule in 2001, relations between the government and particularly NGOs working on issues of human rights, governance, democracy and rule of law, deteriorated
significantly after NGOs formed a coalition called the ‘Oasis Forum’. The Oasis forum was used as a platform through which NGOs collectively opposed Chiluba’s bid to change the constitution to enable him to be eligible to stand for the third term (CIVICUS 2010).
Even with the election of Mwanawasa as the third president in 2001,
relations with the CSOs did not improve as he was accused by some advocacy NGOs of rigging the elections and of appointing his relatives to senior government and diplomatic positions (Corella et al, 2006). In addition, Sreya Maitra (ND) claims that official interactions between the NGOs and the Mwanawasa administration were very poor because civil society groupings continuously criticised the government for its failure to address: a) worsening socio‐economic conditions, b) widening gender disparities, and c) mistreatment of the casual workers by Chinese businesspersons, among others. Matters worsened even further, when Mwanawasa, while officiating at a two‐day AIDs conference, accused AIDS activists of abusing donor funds meant to fight the epidemic (Geloo 2004). Thenceforth, according to CIVICUS (2010, citing Mumba 2010), the government conceived a scheme to control NGOs by introducing an NGO bill to parliament in 2007. Finally, the NGO bill was passed as law in 2009 amid many criticisms from the NGO sector that it was aimed at restricting the arena for NGOs’ operations by tightening rules and regulations of registration and
management (Maitra ND).
Although considered as active, the NGO sector, according to Matilda Kaliba (2014) remains side‐lined and undermined as it does not sufficiently experience the autonomy and latitude to act freely. She further asserts that, when there is a change of government, NGOs have to re‐negotiate their spaces and relationships with the new administration. Often those NGOs involved in advocacy issues are widely perceived by the government as infringing on their operations, and hence,
relationships are burdened with rivalry, scepticism and antagonism, whereas, those NGOs in service provisioning are acknowledged as ‘partners’ in development (Kaliba 2014). However, over the years, perhaps, what will make local NGOs more powerful, will be their ability to secure funds from local individuals and businesses rather than merely focusing on just foreign donors. More importantly, the NGO sector needs to improve on their collaboration and coordination to reduce duplication of efforts in the NGO sector and to increase accountability and transparency that will
subsequently help them gain better public trust and confidence in their areas of work.