'Large' Irreducible Pure Forecast Errors for Commodity Outputs
Table 33a: Key results for AccStrucSMD
1. Why did the model erroneously give poor prospects to AccStrucSMD ?
AccStrucSMD had a USAGE error of 39% versus the smaller trend forecast error of 5%; hence it was situated well above the 45 degree line. The key results for this commodity and its main user (Coal) are shown in Tables 33a and 33b. The actual outcome for AccStrucSMD output (x0dom) was a 41.5% expansion over the 1998‐2005 period. This followed 28.5% growth from 1992‐1998. The extrapolated trend was therefore a further 34% expansion versus the USAGE forecast of a 13.1% contraction. Table 34 shows the main users, cost structure and other information of interest of the 1998 database used in the forecast. The following observations can be made:
This commodity was used solely for investment purposes (Section 3 of Table 34).
There were no imports or exports (Section 3 of Table 34).
The Coal industry was the main buyer of the commodity, accounting for 57.2% of sales (Section 4b of Table 34).
Labour and Engineering Services were the two main production inputs (Sections 6b and 6c of Table 34).
To understand the key drivers behind the erroneous forecast there must be an examination of the Coal industry’s expected rate of return (lev_eror) and its subsequent investment (y). Over the period 1992‐1998 investment in Coal increased by 51.5% (see bottom of Table 33). This drove the 28.5% rise in AccStrucSMD output during that period. In 1998, the capital‐weighted average expected rate of return for all industries was 8.9% – for Coal it was just 4.1%. With only modest growth of 6.0% predicted for the coal industry, USAGE translated the low rate of return into what turned out to be relatively weak investment (up 11.4%) for the 1998‐2005 period. This led the model to incorrectly forecast a 13.1% contraction in output for AccStrucSMD. In reality, there was a strong increase in coal prices (p0dom increased 41.9%), which led to surging investment in Coal (y rose 117.5%).
$M Share 1992‐1998 1998‐2005 Actual
1998‐2005
Forecast Actual Forecast
25 Coal 961 57% 26% 93% ‐8% 53% ‐5% 23 Copperore 183 11% ‐41% ‐48% 10% ‐5% 1% 28 crushedstone 152 9% 178% ‐4% ‐34% 0% ‐3% 32 Chemfertiliz 122 7% 160% ‐29% ‐45% ‐2% ‐3% 29 SandGravel 93 6% 196% ‐11% ‐36% ‐1% ‐2% 24 Nonferrores 86 5% 9% ‐46% 14% ‐2% 1% 30 ClayCeramic 43 3% 166% ‐38% ‐35% ‐1% ‐1% 22 Ironmetlores 22 1% 83% ‐49% ‐1% ‐1% 0% 31 Nonmetminsrv 20 1% 157% 102% ‐42% 1% 0%
Total Demand for Inputs of AccStrucSMD into Capital Creation (sum of contributions) +42% ‐13% Investing Industry (j)
Sales (BAS2) 1998
Growth in industry demand for AccStrucSMD as input to capital
creation (x2csi)
Weighted contribution
to growth of AccStrucSMD 1998‐2005
Table 35: Demand for AccStrucSMD inputs for capital creation by all AccStrucSMD‐using industries (x2csi) Table 35 shows predicted and actual demand for inputs to capital creation (x2csi) in the industries that use AccStrucSMD. As this commodity is used only for investment, and there are no imports, the total demanded from domestic sources (x2csi_dom) closely reconciles with overall commodity output (x0dom). The first row is for the Coal industry. The last two columns effectively show the
impact on the growth of AccStrucSMD as a result of the investment demand projections. In the case of Coal, the weak investment projection was expected to contribute ‐5 percentage points to the circa 13% reduction in output of AccStrucSMD. However, as seen earlier, investment in the coal industry turned out to be quite strong, and made a 53 percentage points contribution to the circa 42% output growth in AccStrucSMD. Almost all other AccStrucSMD‐using industries reduced their demand for the commodity.
2. Macro perspective
The general commentary emerging from this sector in the late 1990s was that there was an increase of mining services as an industry in its own right largely due to cost‐cutting measures on the part of the mining industry. With specific services contracted out, firms could avoid a large commitment of capital investment. Thus, faced with erratic demand conditions, the sector experienced an increase in flexible conditions of production, including just‐in‐time methods, which created smoother production, reduced turnover times, and reduced down‐time. Flexible work rules involving eradication of union work rules – or at the very least, union cooperation – contributed to mine efficiency.53 54 55
The outlook for the coal industry (the main purchaser of mining services) adds further colour. According to the EIA’s Annual Energy Outlook for 1998 (published January 1997), the forecast for Coal was follows:
“Average minemouth prices fall steadily to $13.27 per ton in 2020. Consumption increases about 22 percent, to 26 quadrillion Btu per year, from 1996 levels. Driven by increasing exports and domestic demand, coal production grows 1.1 percent per year to 1,376 million tons in 2020.”56
This talked about long term price pressures. Discussion about renewable energy was also taking place. The EIA’s view was:
“Renewable fuel use increases by an average of 0.5 percent per year. Total production, including hydropower, rises from 6.9 quadrillion Btu in 1996 to 7.7 quadrillion Btu in 2020, mainly because of increases in industrial biomass consumption.”57
In the 1999 Annual Energy Outlook (published December 1998) the modeller would have gauged a downward revision to the outlook for coal:
“Coal prices...drop significantly; increases in productivity, greater reliance on cheaper western coal, and flat labour costs combine to drive down the average minemouth price of coal 30 percent to $12.74 per ton ... In this environment of declining or modestly increasing energy prices, U.S. total consumption rises about 28 percent in 2020 from
53 http://www.answers.com/topic/metal‐mining‐services, visited 8 September 2009. 54
http://www.answers.com/topic/coal‐mining‐services, visited 8 September 2009.
55
http://www.answers.com/topic/nonmetallic‐minerals‐services‐except‐fuels, visited 8 September 2009.
56 http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/plugs/plaeo98.html, visited 9 September 2009. 57 http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/plugs/plaeo98.html, visited 9 September 2009.
the 1997 level. Coal consumption rises 0.9 percent annually, reflecting (like natural gas) increased electricity generation.” 58
‐40 ‐20 0 20 40 60 80 ‐2500 ‐1250 0 1250 2500 3750 5000 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
%
$m
Trade Data ‐Coal
Value of imports Value of exports %chg Imports %chg Exports Figure 15: 1992‐1998 – U.S. trade by the Coal industry in nominal dollars
Figure 15 shows the trade data for Coal. Exports were the main component and they were clearly falling from the mid‐1990s; overall output (x0dom) rose modestly during the period.
3. Conclusion
Whilst the resources sector is cyclical by nature, it probably would have been too tough for the modeller to form a reliable long term view without taking in external forecasts. Furthermore, as seen in the EIA outlook statements from that time, alternative energy sources to coal were being touted, so the forecast is unlikely to have appeared unreasonable. In reality there was overall strong demand for the coal industry, due mostly to the resources boom that occurred during the latter part of the forecast period. Overall, it would be unlikely that the modeller could have produced a better forecast.
PetNgExplor → Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Solid Mineral Exploration This comprises parts of four different SIC industries:
1081 Metal Mining Services
Establishments primarily engaged in performing metal mining services for others on a
contract or fee basis, such as the removal of overburden, strip mining for metallic ores,
prospect and test drilling, and mine exploration and development.
1241 Coal Mining Services
Establishments primarily engaged in performing coal mining services for others on a contract
or fee basis.
138: Oil And Gas Field Services
• 1381 Drilling Oil and Gas Wells – Establishments primarily engaged in drilling wells
for oil or gas field operations for others on a contract or fee basis. This industry
includes contractors that specialize in spudding in, drilling in, redrilling, and
directional drilling.
• 1382 Oil and Gas Field Exploration Services – Establishments primarily engaged in
performing geophysical, geological, and other exploration services for oil and gas on
a contract or fee basis.
• 1389 Oil and Gas Field Services, Not Elsewhere Classified – Establishments primarily
engaged in performing oil and gas field services, not elsewhere classified, for others
on a contract or fee basis.
1481 Nonmetallic Minerals Services, Except Fuels
Establishments primarily engaged in the removal of overburden, strip mining, and other
services for nonmetallic minerals, except fuels, for others on a contract or fee basis.
Table 36b: Key results for NatGas and Crude