REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3.2 Analysis of the literature
3.2.2 Key theme (2): Theoretical perspectives: How far does the emergence of different theoretical perspectives
3.2.2.2 The emergence of Supervision-based developmental models
Supervision models which place emphasis only on the transmission of skills and
knowledge with little time for reflection and discount the individuality of the
apprentices (Carroll, 1996) have been challenged. Skills teaching without
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considering the cognitive ability, developmental needs will encounter blockages in
the learning process. The supervisees will not be able to identify and differentiate
the therapeutic constructs. Pedder (2010, p.103) argues that the supervisees are
not “passive recipient” of skills and information. He emphasizes,
We have to take trainees from where they are— most have had considerable background experience of dealing with people in a therapeutic role, whether as doctor, psychologist, social worker, or nurse. They are not empty vessels into whom we pour from a jug, nor inert lumps of clay to be fashioned after our own image. We are facilitators, gardeners, accepting the plants that spring up in our gardens and doing what we can by pruning.
(Pedder, 2010, p.103)
These models have been questioned concerning their narrow focus on teaching
counselling theories (Falender and Safranske, 2004) without considering the unique
characteristics of the supervisors’ teaching style and the supervisees’ learning style
in supervision.
This led to the emerging of the supervisor-based integrative and supervision-based
developmental models (Bradley and Ladany, 2001). A change from one paradigm to
another appeared in the counselling supervision profession. More and more models
based on various dimensions in the supervision have been found, such as the
developmental stages (Hogan, 1961), the social roles (Hawkins and Shohet, 1989),
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professional competency (Falender and Safranske, 2004), and the system approach
(Holloway, 1987). The supervision discipline is beginning to bloom.
The rise of developmental models of supervision (Holloway, 1987) marks the
paradym change in the 20th century. Professional development is the process from
the beginning of an individual’s career to retirement through which he or she gains
experience and becomes an expert (Skovholt and Rønnestad, 1995). The basic
assumptions of the developmental models are that supervisees move through a
series of qualitatively different stages toward competence and therefore require a
qualitatively different supervisory environment for the best satisfaction and growth
in the supervision process (Chagnon and Russell, 1995; Brown and Srebalus, 1996;
Fong et al., 1997; Loganbill, Hardy, and Delworth, 1982; Rønnestad and Skovholt,
2003).
A novice is defined as a person who must rely on rules to guide practice because he
or she has no experience from which to draw a response (Skovholt and Rønnestad,
1995). Not only the cognitive dimension, but also the relational and personal,
emotional maturity (Furr and Carroll, 2003) should be taken into consideration in
the supervision process.
Bruss and Kopala (1993) use an analogy to discuss the development of graduate
psychology students. They use an object-relations approach and view students in
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terms of professional infancy. Beginners like infants, are completely dependent but
head towards independence if the environment is productive and supportive.
Developmental models use development as a metaphor for the process of a
supervisee’s growth. Meadows (1986, p.19) construes that “stage models of
development are relevant to the concept of continuity and discontinuity in
development”. Counsellors advance through various sequential, progressive,
hierarchal stages of maturation at a rate commensurate with their current abilities
(Barrett and Barber, 2005).
Hogan (1961) was one of the earliest to formulate four developmental stages about
the needs of therapists. He also emphasizes that one recycles through the levels
rather than remaining at the achieved level.
Figure 3.3 Hogan (1961, p.140): Developmental stages about the needs of therapists
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Loganbil, Hardy and Delworth (1982, p.17) regard development as “continuous and
ongoing throughout one’s professional life span”. A stage 1 supervisee is ignorant,
lacks creativity and deals with problems with linear solutions. Stage 2 supervisees
are confused and in conflict with a realization of the problems. Stage 3 supervisees
experience “a new cognitive understanding……and personal security based on
awareness of insecurity” (Ibid. p.19).
Figure 3.4 Loganbil, Hardy and Delworth (1982)-Supervisee developmental stages
Does every supervisee go through these stages with similar characteristics? How
does the development take place? What potential factors will facilitate or hinder the
development? The literature does not make clear when and how a supervisee moves
from one level to the other, nor how the competencies at each level are evaluated
(Carroll, 1996; Kaufmann, 2003). Empirical investigations have not been addressed
much in response to these questions. From my experience in supervision, although
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supervisees vary in their characteristics across stages due to many factors such as
personality differences, responding and learning styles, they nevertheless share
certain similarities across stages. Sometimes, supervisees may move back and forth
along the stages. The relational chemistry between supervisors and supervisees are
essential in the learning process.
Skovholt and Rønnestad (2003) argue that novice counsellors normally lack the
cognitive ability in the case of conceptualization with an integrative theoretical
perspective in spite of having an enormous undigested amount of academic
knowledge from the universities. This knowledge is insufficient for them to deal with
the all sorts of challenges from clients in the real world. To a certain extent, I agree
with this point of view. This is especially true to those undergraduate students who
are totally new to the profession. They have to go through a sense of uncertainty,
and feelings of anxiety and frustration, before they can integrate theories and
conceptual knowledge and operate intuitively and competently as experts. To those
master level students, the anxiety level may be slightly lower due to their previous
exposure in their profession. Etringer et al., (1995) state that development is a
process that involves individuals moving from declarative (factual) knowledge to
procedural knowledge. If students are to develop generalized working schemas
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across various situations, they must repeatedly practise on cases with varying
degrees of similarity.
Does it make any cohort difference in the professional development process with
reference to the effects of globalization and advances in technologies which provide
more opportunities to learn through the internet? Or is it just the opposite, the
technology actually creates more stress and tension in the interns of contemporary
cohorts than those of the past decades? Technology in contemporary world becomes
an optimal medium for self-directed learning and economized the processing of
information. The continuous development in educational technology really offers
multiple pathways to both educators and students in the teaching and learning.
Video-conferencing, web-based guidance and instructions from the supervisors
have substantial impact on supervision. However, this development can be
overwhelming and burdensome to traditional supervisors. The increase in huge
amount of cognitive knowledge does not necessarily mean the integration of the
theoretical underpinning and the clinical challenges.
Skovholt, Rønnestad and Jennings (1997) argue that novice and expert may work
equally well with clients with good relationship skills, while only the expert will
succeed in managing clients with severe trauma. They further propose,
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Expertise occurs when the practitioner has evolved to an internalized style after thousands of hours of practice and an average of 15 years of professional experience. At this point the practitioner has internalized theory and research, found a comfortable working style, developed methods for judging success, and shed elements of the professional role which are incongruent with the self.
(Ibid., 1997, p.364)
Developmental perspectives enable us to understand professional growth in a more
coherent way. Supervisors must be cognizant of the developmental issues. The
ability to manage all sorts of difficulties and conflicts are stage different. It reminds
the counsellor educators to design appropriate training programmes that address all
relevant aspects of counsellor development and examine experiences that have an
impact on counsellor development. Supervision research generally supports the
notion that there are specific levels of training and various focuses of the
developmental models start to emerge (Holloway, 1987; Loganbill, Hardy and
Delworth, 1982; Bernard and Goodyear, 2004).
However, quite a number of issues arise from these models. Are there any
differences in the developmental stages with regard to cultural diversity? Would
there be any effects on professional development with regard to different theoretical
orientation and background experience? How should novice counsellors who are
cognitively smart but relationally and emotionally insensitive in working with clients
or vice versa be supervised? These questions raise attention for further researchers
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in the future in regard to the developmental models. I have encountered a number
of these supervisees who are smart in academic study but poor in self-and other
awareness. It takes time for them to taste and experience the social world and the
clinical settings. Sometimes conflicts and difficulties are functional as these will
arouse their attention and sensitivity.