Ethical consideration 1. Ethics in data collection

The ethical issues in qualitative research mainly rest on the protection of the

participants and data collecting and reporting. Prior to the initial interview, subjects

were asked to read and sign an informed consent (see Appendix C) regarding their

participation in the dissertation project (Maxwell, 1996; Lincoln and Guba, 1985).

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After review of the consent agreement I collected one copy, which was signed by

both myself and the participant, along with the general information form completed

by the participants. The purpose of the study was clearly stated. The participants

were significant partners in the research process (Lincoln and Guba, 1985) and their

full participation was highly appreciated. I use fictitious names for the participants in

the reports to ensure confidentiality and to preserve anonymity. Besides, the names

of institutions and their supervisors are not disclosed. At the start of each interview,

the purpose of the study was reiterated and each interviewee was given a chance to

ask any initial questions he or she had. I reminded myself not to impose any values

on the participants.

Audiotapes and soft copies of the interview transcripts were kept in a secured

location only be accessible by me. The audiotapes and raw data will be destroyed

three years after the completion of the thesis.

The transcripts were sent back to the participants for checking and proofreading

through email to ensure that each transcribed interview is an accurate and complete

representation of the actual interview. They were asked to identify any inaccuracies.

They were given the chance to delete text that they were not comfortable with. After

their confirmation emails were received, the complete transcripts were analyzed.

4.5.2. The issues of Power

All knowledge is socially produced and therefore influenced by power relations

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(Bhaskar, 1989). Power is a fundamental aspect of everyday social life (Cartwright,

1959). Ferguson et al., (2004) propose that a faculty which engages students as

participants in their qualitative research often encounter methodological issues

between the faculty and their students arising from the fiduciary relationship, which

is an unequal relationship. The more powerful person is entrusted to protect the best

interests of the less powerful (Lemmens and Singer, 1998). Potential issues of

faculty conflicts of interest also need to be addressed (Lemmens and Singer, 1998).

Vigilant attentiveness has been made due to my role as an internship coordinator in

the context of the potential harm to the participants though there was no direct

lecturer-student or supervisor-supervisee relationship between the researcher and

the participants. One needs to be aware of the possibility of arousing intrinsic

tension between the needs of the researcher and the rights of the interviewees.

Disclosure of sensitive and embarrassing information may evoke psychological,

social harm in the participants and is potentially risky (Kavanaugh and Ayres, 1998;

Dantzker and Hunter, 2012; De Vaus, 2002; Adler and Clark, 2011). It is the

researcher’s duty to protect the best interests of the participants. The fundamental

tenet of the protection is the guarantee of anonymity and confidentiality which

would ensure the feeling of security in the participants in their honest and genuine

discussion of their internship experience. Respect was demonstrated through

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empathetic listening to the inner voices of the participants with no value judgement.

Students were fully informed of the aims, objectives and procedures of the research

and reassured of their rights to participate or not. They were invited to make

amendment on the transcripts afterwards.

4.5.3. The issue of asking about distressing experience

The potential for participants to be upset by recalling possibly distressing material is

another ethical issue to be considered. During the interviewing process, some

questions may elicit strong emotions from recalling painful or traumatic memories.

The nature of traumatic memories is stressful. Cromer, et al. (2006) have a research

on comparison of the distress experienced while completing self report trauma

surveys to distress experienced in everyday life. 63% reported distress related

trauma surveys rated experience was no more distressing than other experiences in

everyday life. As a counsellor, we have encountered a lot of traumatic stories

described by the clients. Proper way to manage distressful or traumatic experience

is actually a very significant healing process. Understanding and acceptance is very

effective psychological painkiller. The ethical principles of respect and confidentiality

will help to reduce potential harms to the participants.

4.5.4. The issue of language.

The use of language is essential in conducting research. As Seale points out,

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The attempt to use language to refer to, describe or explain aspects of the social world (even if these aspects are the uses made of language in certain contexts) is a basic commitment for qualitative researchers and must ultimately depend upon some modified form of realism.

Seale (1999, p.157) In this research, all the interviews were conducted in Cantonese which is the mother

tongue of the interviewees and the interviewer. This has an advantage in the

research process. The understanding of the message delivered by the interviewees

is not blocked by language. However, the transcripts were written in English. I

needed to be aware of the effect of the language filters. Awareness of the possible

cultural and linguistic filters that exist in bilingual research is important (Chiu and

Knight, 1999).

Although there was not much difficulty for the interviewees to read the transcripts

when sent back to them afterwards, I needed to pay attention to the translation of

the messages into another language which matched their original meanings.

Language was a key means used by the participants to construct and communicate

their meanings of their experience. The role of language is significant in the sharing

of the values and meanings in the socially constructed world (Berger and Luckman,

1966; Shotter, 1993). Interpretation is a complex process in that an interpreter can

select to interpret meaning from a range of words or phrases, but words themselves

have a range of connotations across different languages and contexts (Edwards,

1998). The right choice of words and meanings is very important. Discussions with

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the interviewees on the transcripts helped to maintain the accuracy.