In 1944, The Vegan Society was founded in Leicestershire by Donald Watson and 25 members.68 It emerged from a small group of non-dairy vegetarians whose aim was to ‘state a case for a reform that … is moral, safe and logical’.69 The term ‘vegan’ was a contraction of the word ‘vegetarian’.70 It was suggested by Donald Watson, as an interim description of the beliefs of a non-dairy-eating vegetarian. This short word has been described as meaningful, purposeful and steadfast.71
The evolution of veganism, as distinct from vegetarianism, stems from a rift in
66
LGBTQI+? is a comprehensively inclusive acronym that refers to the multiplicity of gender identities and possible sexual orientations. It unites lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex gender variance and any other identity not easily represented by a letter or single word.
67
The symbolic value of veganism is also observed by Cory Lee Wren, ‘Human Supremacy, Post-Speciesist Ideology, and the Case for Anti-Colonialist Veganism’ in Daniel Moorehead (ed), Animals in Human Society: Amazing Creatures Who Share Our Planet (University Press of America 2016).
68
Donald Watson is globally recognised as a pioneer of the modern vegan movement. For an insight into his life and thoughts, see George D Rodger, ‘Interview with Donald Watson On Sunday 15 December 2002’
<www.vegansociety.com/sites/default/files/DW_Interview_2002_Unabridged_Transcript.pdf> accessed 5 May 2016.
69
Donald Watson, ‘The Vegan News’ (The Vegan Society, November 1944 No 1, para 10) <https://issuu.com/vegan_society/docs/the_vegan_news_1944> accessed 5 May 2016.
70
Watson (1944) para 9.
71
Fay K Henderson, ‘Vegan Values’ (International Vegetarian Union [IVU]. The Vegetarian, Winter 1947 No 4, 29 – 30) <www.ivu.org/history/world-forum/1947vegan.html> Additionally, psycholinguist and philosopher Stanley Sapon (1924-2010) has noted a degree of ‘linguistic chaos’ and ‘crippling ambiguity’ regarding the definition of vegetarianism as a moral statement. The word ‘veganism’ produces fewer ambiguities, although it may indicate differences in motivation or strategy. Sapon emphasises that a clear definition of vegetarianism or veganism ought to indicate much more than what popular culture currently promotes, and that the ethical movement for compassionate living may be adversely affected by popular notions of veg*ism and dietary fads circulated in popular media. Cited in Karen Iacobbo and Michael Iacobbo, Vegetarians and Vegans in America Today (Praeger Publishers 2006) 182-183.
40 ethical values concerning the use of other animals for human consumption.72 In the 1940s, it appears that some pure vegetarians were open to the use of nonhumans for food if they were not killed. This rift was the impetus for Donald Watson and likeminded strict vegetarians to establish The Vegan Society in the UK.73
This break-away group of strict vegetarians adopted an uncompromising approach to practising moral responsibility to nonhumans. The Vegan Society emphasised the suffering of living animals as important in dietary ethics. For Watson and the 25 founding members, there existed ‘very strong evidence’ that the production of dairy products involved ‘much cruel exploitation and slaughter of highly sentient life’.74 Whilst vegetarianism remained concerned with the immorality of killing only, veganism identified the injurious practices associated with producing food from living animals and promoted an enhanced concept of ethical responsibility to them. To subject nonhuman animals to a life of confinement in which they would endure constant suffering was regarded to be unethical and abhorrent to humanity. This rationale, which this thesis refers to as the ‘suffering’ narrative of veganism, is supported by the 1965 Brambell Report, which observes the sentiency of animals used in the dairy industry.75 This report documents that the process of producing and taking milk from cows for humans requires the separation of the mother and baby cow, which is likely to be traumatic due to their close bond.76
72
John Davis, ‘The History of Vegetarianism’ (Public Lecture. West Midlands Vegan Festival Wolverhampton October 29 2011). 73 Watson (1944) para 10. 74 Watson (1944) para 1. 75
Francis W R Brambell, Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Animals kept under Intensive Livestock Husbandry Systems. ‘Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Animals Kept under Intensive Livestock Husbandry Systems’ (Her Majesty's Stationery Office [ca. 1965]).
76
Cows are continually impregnated to maintain milk production. Following birthing, their calves are removed and killed within three days. The natural lifespan of a cow is around thirty years, but they are typically diseased, lame and rendered useless at around six years of age. They are then killed and processed in food production. More detailed information on the commodification and production of cows can be found at Compassion in World
41 Maintaining that ‘our present civilisation is built on the exploitation of animals just as pre-civilisations were built on the exploitation of slaves’,77 Watson believed that ‘the spiritual destiny of man is such that in time he will view with abhorrence the idea that men once fed on the products of animals’ bodies’.78 Vegetarianism was regarded as a ‘half-way house’ and was distinguished from what was perceived to be the ‘truly human, civilised diet’ of veganism.79
Veganism thus emerges as a lifestyle adopted by those who believe that the essence of human identity involves a compassionate, responsible duty in the face of suffering, and that this duty concerns nonhuman animals. On this view, the ethical orientation of humanity necessarily recognises ethical responsibility to nonhumans. By articulating this notion of ethics, the 25 founding members of The Vegan Society were making a profound statement that resonated widely. Its non-reductive, uncompromising philosophy inspired a global movement.
The growing culture of veganism has coordinators, groups and societies in 49 countries.80 Following the formation of The Vegan Society in the UK in 1944, the first overseas vegan society was formed in California in 1948. Four years later, in 1960, the American Vegan Society was established.81 Though accurate statistics are difficult to ascertain, it is estimated that in 2007 there were around 180,000 vegans living in the UK.82 In 2016, a Mori Poll commissioned by The Vegan Society indicated that 542,000 people in the UK are now vegan, and half of these are in the age range 15-
Farming, ‘The Life of: Dairy Cows’ <www.ciwf.org.uk/media/5235185/the-life-of-dairy-cows.pdf> accessed 5 May 2016. 77 Watson (1944) para 1. 78 Watson (1944) para 4. 79 Watson (1944) para 3. 80
Vegan World Network <www.vegansworldnetwork.org/world_vegan_directory_vcountries.php> accessed 3 November 2011.
81
American Vegan Society, ‘History’ (para 4) <www.americanvegan.org/history.htm> accessed 12 October 2011.
82
42 34.83 In the US, available statistics indicate that around 1% of the population could be following a vegan diet.84 A speculative estimate in 2013 suggests that 55% of the UK population could be vegan by 2020.85