1. The Population Problem, page 223-
2. The term was coined by John Maynard Smith (1964).
3. Rates of extinction of species or larger systems are very much lower than rates for individuals or small populations. The process of adjustment to environmental circumstances is therefore much faster for the smaller structures, since the 'testing* period of the var ious structures is shorter.
4. This term can be used to cover selection of any unit greater than one individual.
5. Darwin, Origin of Species (1859) page 238.
6. Hayek, in 'The Theory of Complex Phenomena' discusses the importance of this point. He notes that even Popper makes the confusion when he says that "the evolutionary hypothesis is not a universal law of nature but a particular (or, more precisely, singular) historical statement about the ancestry of a number of terrestrial plants and animals," (The Poverty of Historicism, p.10?) Since the first pub lication of Hayek*s essay. Popper has repeated his comment, saying that "There exists no law of evolution, only the historical fact that plants and animals change, or more precisely, that they have changed," (Conjectures and Refutations, p.340) In a.more recent chapter based on a 196l lecture, however, he qualifies this view somewhat: "There are no Darwinian laws of evolution. In fact, it was Herbert Spencer who tried to formulate universal laws of evo lution.. .. but they are vague, and... almost devoid of empirical content." (Objective Knowledge, p.26?)
7. Needham, History is on Our Side is a classic statement of such a mistake. See discussion of Needham inlAhtho'ny Flew.', Evo
lutionary Ethics, chapter III (iv), and of Needham and De Chardin in chapter nine, below.
8. Hayek, *The Theory of Complex Phenomena', section 5*
9. See L.S.Penrose, *Self-Reproducing Machines', Scientific American, 1959.
10. See M.Lindauer, Communication Among Social Bees, and discussion in Manning, An Introduction to Animal Social Behaviour.
11. Mohr (i960). 12. Tener (1954).
1 3. Adam Ferguson, Essay on the History of Civil Society, page I87. Although this principle applies to human individuals, it could
equally apply to any structure with or without the power of 'de sign' .
14. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 2.
1 5. Mandeville, The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. (See P.B.Kaye, The Fable of the Bees).
16. This is only one of many such passages in the original poem, of 1705.
17. See, for example, Smith's doctrine of the 'Invisible Hand', in The Wealth of Nations, Book IV, chapter 2; Josiah Tucker, The Elements of Commerce, in R.L,Schuyler (I93I) page 59*
18. For Menger, see L.Schneider, Problems of Economics and Sociology, especially. page-158. For others see Popper, The Poverty of Hist oricism, p. 65 (on the "undesigned results of human action");'Hayek, "The Results of Human Action but not of Human Design" j particu larly note 12 for these and further examples. Also Hayek, The Con
stitution of Liberty, chapter 10, "Order without Commands", and Law, Liberty and Legislation, volume 1 part 1.
19. See for example Hans Kelsen, What is Justice?; also John Rawls, A Theory of Justice.
20. For an examination of this changing work pattern, see M.Lindauer, Communication Among Social Bees.
21. A Theory of Justice; Rawls may not attempt to extinguish all human differences, but he makes a strong try.to'limit their effect. 22. The correctness of applying this term to animals is discussed in
chapter five, below.
23. Haldane, The Causes of Evolution. 24. Kalela (1954, 1957).
25. These are the models of Levins (I97O) and Boorman and Levitt (1972,
1973) . For these and other models see Wilson (1975) « By. ''altruism' here is meant the definition accepted among biologists, that is, behaviour Increasing the fitness of others while risking or dimin ishing the fitness of the agent.
26. Reply to Maynard Smith in Nature, Aarch 14, 1964, page 1147.
27. Nottebohm.(1967)* See also Tinbergen (I951)» Manning (1967) and Thorpe (I961) for similar or related mechanisms of display leading to breeding isolation in birds,
28. W.D'.Hamilton. (1964, 1970, 1971, 1972).
29. Hamilton (l970) calls this 'spite'. For another model of the evo lution of 'spite', see G.R.Price (197O).
30. Hamilton (19?0) asks; ""why, if the model is correct, are more con vincing examples of spite hard to find?" Wilson observes'that' "Examples of spite in animals may be rare and difficult to dis tinguish from purely selfish behaviour.” (Sociobiology, p.119)
31. Dawkins gives many examples, but all are open to question. See, for example, my discussion of the defensive mechanism of the Thom son's Gazelle, chapter five below.
32. For a model of the spread of a gene under these conditions, see Maynard Smith (1964).
33- Other biologists make the same mistake. Maynard Smith (1964) for example, notes that avian breeding colonies are often regulated in number because the too-aggressive birds will spend time on acquiring and defending a territory, to the detriment of their young, while too-timid birds will be unable to defend a nest area sufficient to
meet their need for food and space. Hence, he concludes, population "j control such as this can be explained without recourse to group ; selection. However, it is possible that in every generation, agg
ressive and timid birds are bred, like the infertile worker castes {{ of bee colonies, because of the usefulness of their other qualities J to the fitness of the group. Smith is confusing an individual's
response to the social environment with individual selection. j
34. Robert L. Trivers, 'The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism, ' The ]
Quarterly Review of Biology, March 1971. j
35- Wilson (1975, page 120) notes that there are few examples of true j reciprocation in animal societies, partly because of short memories | and casual animal relationships. However, altruism between all
4
members of a population is common in animals (see chapter five) |even where the animal lacks much intelligence,
36. See Darwin (I871), quoted in Williams (1966). See also Hamilton (1969).
3 7. For studies of the dependence of gratitude and sympathy on the cost/benefit ratio of altruistic acts, see Gouldner (I96O). and Aronfreed, Conduct and Conscience.
Chapter 3