The implementation of a dialogic teaching approach 1 Everything is intertwined

The implementation of dialogic teaching of expressiveness in weekly instrumental music lessons was investigated in the ARP. According to participating tutors ‘everything

is intertwined’ in instrumental music teaching. Various methods can be used within a

dialogic teaching approach for several teaching aims. Tutors can use dialogic teaching consisting of open questions and discussion for work on expression of musical character, accuracy, phrasing, technique, and for evaluation of playing to inform practice and performance (Figure 7.1.). Such a dialogic teaching approach can be supported by instructional strategies such as modelling, singing, playing along with pupils and listening to own recordings to illustrate ideas that are being discussed. Additionally, various teaching aims, such as improving accuracy, technical fluency and

phrasing, as well as reflection on the interpretation contribute to the development of performance expression.

This perspective on instrumental music tuition is different to my initial theoretic model for teaching expressivity (Figure 3.3.), as the first model depicted a distinction between instructional strategies that could support the dialogic teaching of musical character and methods that could clarify the use of expressive tools for conveying the musical character. The updated model (Figure 7.1.) illustrates how various instructional strategies can support a dialogic teaching approach aimed at improving accuracy, technical fluency and expression of musical character as well as phrasing, thus facilitating pupils’ learning of expressive performance.

8.3.2. Aural modelling and other supplemental methods

In line with previous research (e.g. Dickey, 1992; Sang, 1987; Woody, 2006b), teachers and pupils in the ARP thought that aural modelling is an essential tool for various aspects of instrumental learning and teaching, including expressivity. Pupils’ views on modelling in this study might seem to differ to those of conservatoire students in the study by Lindström and colleagues (2003), who preferred the use of metaphors or focusing on felt emotion over modelling. However, this apparent inconsistency might be caused by the different content of questions, as Lindström and colleagues asked for students’ preferred method for learning expressivity while the questionnaire in the current study asked pupils to indicate whether methods had been helpful for learning. In their modelling tutors can demonstrate various expressive solutions and interpretations and provide pupils with an aural picture of the music. Although some researchers have suggested that expressive aural models might be too complex for teaching children expressivity (Sloboda, 1996, Sloboda, 2005; Woody, 2000, 2003), findings from the ARP demonstrate that aural modelling combined with a dialogic teaching approach can be effective. Via open questions teachers can help their students to reflect on what they hear in an aural model and how this might be related to their interpretation. It seems unlikely that stand-alone modelling will stimulate reflection on the musical meaning, and it might make pupils dependent on their teacher when modelling is not accompanied by questions and dialogue (cf. Broomhead, 2005). Some reports in the ARP support these suppositions. The piano

tutor reported that she used to teach expressiveness via verbal teaching using metaphors to describe the musical character supported by modelling, but she thought this had been less effective than dialogic teaching supported by modelling during the ARP. Additionally, the brass teacher had been taught mainly via modelling prior to his studies at Music College, and initially experienced difficulties constructing his own interpretations when he was taught mainly via verbal teaching afterwards.

Hallam (1998) suggested that modelling should not be used too much for advanced students as they should find their own interpretation. However, when modelling is used in combination with dialogic teaching it is possible to discuss various interpretations and experiment with ideas so that students can arrive at their own interpretation. When modelling is used appropriately, within a dialogic teaching approach consisting of questions stimulating thinking and opportunities to explore own interpretations, it can be an effective teaching tool, enhancing pupils’ musical understanding, performance and practice.

Several tutors and students in the ARP had found it helpful when teachers played along with pupils, supporting their accuracy, technical fluency and direction in playing, thus strengthening their confidence. Additionally, participants in the first two studies had found it useful to practise difficult sections, to play scales in the key of the test piece and some had also found it helpful to make up improvisations using rhythmic or melodic patterns from their pieces. It seems therefore that various instructional strategies can be helpful for improving pupils’ accuracy and technical fluency which in turn may support the development of expressiveness as discussed above (8.3.1.). The other methods depicted in Figure 7.1., e.g. ‘projected performance’, gestures and movements, listening to ‘own’ recordings, and singing, were sometimes used during the ARP but their effectiveness was not investigated systematically during the project. Overall, most tutors thought that all these strategies could be used within a dialogic teaching approach but that asking questions and modelling were both central for teaching pupils’ expressiveness. It seems likely that asking questions concerning the musical character is the most effective tool for transforming pupils’ focus on ‘technicality’ into an approach that also considers the ‘musicality’ of pieces, as open questions stimulate thinking and reflection (e.g. Alexander, 2008).

Tutors in the ARP emphasized that teaching should be adapted to the student and situation (e.g. Hallam, 1998, 2006; Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976). When tutors use effective strategies tailored to their students by asking questions to promote thinking and problem solving, limiting frustration by choosing appropriate pieces and modelling potential interpretations, they are fulfilling the requirements for effective scaffolding tutoring (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976).

8.3.3. Teaching-and-learning expressivity from the early stages of learning

Data from these studies support the view that teaching-and-learning of expressive performance is possible from the early stages of instrumental music learning. The youngest pupils in these studies had been 8-year olds playing at the level of Grade 1 while the oldest were 15-year olds, some of whom were playing at the level of Grade 8. No significant correlations were found for age and difference scores overall

expressiveness, emotional expression or phrasing in the experimental study. This was

validated by findings in the qualitative study, as no significant differences were found between younger pupils and older, more advanced students in their approach to practice, as most participants reported that they did not normally reflect on the musical meaning of their pieces. In contrast to McPhee's (2011) expectation, this study observed that regardless of their age or level of playing, participants reported that they had found the questions about the musical character useful, since this had helped them to think about and convey feeling in their playing. Additionally, the piano teacher in the ARP mentioned that thinking about the meaning of pieces from the beginning stages of learning helps pupils to ‘land’; it helps them to know what to aim for in their practice and playing.

Overall, findings from the experimental study as well as the ARP suggest that there is no reason for music educators to focus on technique before working on expressiveness. McPherson and colleagues (2012) mentioned that several of their participating musical directors thought that technical competency is prerequisite for communicative and expressive music making. However, findings from this doctoral project show that pupils’ accuracy and technical fluency can improve, even if the emphasis of teaching is on expressive playing. Although technical difficulties may hinder expressiveness, concentrating on performance expression can facilitate

technical fluency as well as expressiveness.

Findings from these studies support the notion that all young musicians can ‘achieve a degree of mastery in the contemporary musical idioms of the maternal culture’ (Welch, 2002, p. 125), as long as they are exposed to positive musical experiences and receive appropriate encouragement and training (e.g. McPherson & Hallam, 2016; Sloboda et al., 1994). Admittedly, these participants formed a select sample and are not representative of this age group in general, as all had received instrumental tuition for at least two years, and most had successfully passed grade exams. However, the pupils who participated in the ARP had been invited by their tutors because they thought these students should improve their expressiveness; they were not seen as highly expressive or ‘natural’ musicians by their teachers. Even so, thinking about character and structure had been effective for improving expressiveness in lessons and pupils had insightful ideas about the musical character, suggesting that these children and teenagers have an intuitive understanding of the interpretation of works that are embedded in Western classical musical style.