Expressive Music
4.1. Methodology of Study 1: Experimental study*
* This study was published in Meissner & Timmers. (2018). Teaching young musicians expressive performance: An experimental study. Music Education Research, DOI: 10.1080/14613808.2018.1465031 Overlap between the article and reported methodology in this chapter was unavoidable.
4.1.1. Improvisation test
A few weeks before the start of the experimental and control group lessons an improvisation session was organized (Figure 4.1.). The reason for organizing an improvisation test prior to the experimental study was two-fold: Firstly, this informal session provided the participants with an opportunity to meet me and to play a piece of their own choice that they had prepared at home, before they would work with me in the experimental study. I expected that this would help them to feel at ease in the unfamiliar setting of a research session. Additionally, it provided me with an opportunity to get an approximate idea of their playing; to find out whether the test extracts would be appropriate material for them. Secondly, but equally important, it was my aim to explore whether the participants had knowledge about the use of expressive cues to communicate happiness, sadness and anger in their improvisations at the start of the project. Such knowledge could be an intuitive understanding of expressive tools. If pupils know how to convey happiness, sadness and anger through their instrumental improvisations by using expressive cues such as articulation, dynamics, tempo and timbre, this would suggest that they can also (learn to) do this in their performances of music they read from notation.
The decision to ask participating children to convey happiness, sadness and anger in their improvisations was based on my observations in my teaching practice. I had noticed that young children (aged 6-7) are able to convey happiness, sadness and anger in their extemporizations. Furthermore, several of my young beginner pupils seemed to enjoy improvising angry tunes, and they appeared to prefer conveying anger over portraying sadness in their improvisations.
Figure 4.1. Timeline of Study 1 and 2.
4.1.2. Experimental study design in educational settings
An experimental study design was chosen to compare dialogic teaching with instruction focusing on accuracy and technique; ‘The advantage of experimental methods is that – when properly implemented – they allow for drawing causal conclusions, such as the conclusion that a particular method causes better learning outcomes’ (Mayer, 2005, p. 74). A requirement for experimental test design is to randomly assign participants to a control and experimental group (e.g. Mayer, 2005; Shuttleworth, 2009), and in the current study random allocation to groups was based on level of playing so that the median level of playing was the same across groups (See section 4.1.3. below). The difficulty of experimental research design in educational settings is two-fold: Firstly, it could be that simply participating in a research study already influences pupils’ behaviour and performance, the so-called Hawthorn effect (Landsberger, 1958; see also Shuttleworth, 2009); participants might be exited or subdued or more concentrated because of the research setting. However, one could argue that this might apply to any research design in educational studies. Secondly, it is very difficult to control all variables that could influence the learning outcome (Mayer, 2005) and variables could be complex situations (Spector, 1993). Even though variations between participants and lesson situations due to human nature and variability cannot be avoided completely in an experimental study in education, such investigations can still present useful information for teaching practice, because an experimental design study allows testing whether a particular approach can effectively
facilitate learning across a sample of randomly allocated participants. When conducting an experimental study in an educational setting it is important to be aware of potential limitations (Shuttleworth, 2009) and where possible, to use qualitative data to validate and/or explain the quantitative findings (e.g. Gelo et al., 2008). Therefore, the current experimental study was conducted in conjunction with a qualitative study (see section 4.2.).
4.1.3. Participants Study 1 and 2
29 participants (Table 4.1.) aged 8-15 (18 girls and 11 boys), at the level of Pre-Grade 1 – Grade 89 took part in this study, playing recorder10 (7), violin (5), piano (4), flute (3),
cello (3), clarinet (2), cornet (1), trumpet (1), double bass (1), baritone (1) and French horn (1). Six participants attended a private school11 while 23 children were from state
schools. Convenience sampling was used as participants were invited via the music departments of schools where I was teaching, and additionally via music teachers at two local village schools and a local church youth band. Although participating schools had been asked for intermediate musicians, some advanced players signed up too. Based on previously passed grade exams or grade level reported by teachers, participants were allocated to a lower (1, N = 19), intermediate (2, N = 5) or advanced (3, N = 5) level group, and randomly assigned to an experimental (15) or control group (14). The mean level of playing (lower, intermediate and advanced level) was 1.53, and the median Grade level was Grade 3 for both groups. All 29 participants took part in the improvisation test and the experimental study (Study 1) and filled in questionnaires (Study 2). Additionally, 16 participants took part in a video-stimulated recall interview (VSRI, Study 2); 11 girls and five boys (aged 10-16), eight experimental and eight control group participants. A varied group of pupils participated in the VSRI; some had made improvements in their expressiveness in both test extracts whilst others had improved in one extract but not the other.
9 Grades as used by the Associated Board of the Royal Schools (ABRSM) of Music in the UK, with grades
ranging from Grade 1 to Grade 8 (most advanced).
10 None of these recorder players were learning with me; they had a different recorder teacher. 11 Private schools in the UK are fee-paying independent schools directed by a board of governors.
4.1.3.1. Participants’ codes Study 1 and 2
Participants were assigned codes consisting of a pseudonym followed by age, instrument, grade group (Group 1: Pre-grade 1-Grade 3; Group 2: Grade 4-5; Group 3: Grade 6-8) and group condition (experimental (E) or control group (C)). Instrument codes were: Baritone (Ba), cello (Ce), clarinet (Cl), cornet (Co), double bass (DB), flute (Fl), French horn (FH), piano (Pi), recorder (R), trumpet (Tr), violin (Vi). R = References; Q = Questionnaire, VSRI = Video-stimulated recall interview, J = Junior, and S = Senior school participant.
Table 4.1. Participants study 1 and 2, allocation to experimental/control groups, and level of playing. Names of VSRI participants in italic.
Experimental Group Grade Control Group Grade
Eloise9_Vi1E 2 Emily9_Vi1C Pre-1
Eve10_Fl1E 1 Kim10_Vi1C 2
Alex10_Vi1E 3 Lily10_R1C 3
April10_Fl1E Pre-1 Kelly10_R1C 1
Mary13_Cl1E 3 Jade10_R1C 2
Lydia15_Ce2E 5 Josh13_Co2C 4
Jessy14_Tr3E 7 Tim15_Cl3C 6
Jack15_Pi3E 8 Will15_DB3C 8
Peter8_Vi1E 2 Olivia8_R1C 1
Nicole10_R1E 3 Linda11_Pi1C Pre-1
Anna10_R1E 3 Sophie10_Pi1C 3 Ava11_R1E 3 Charlie11_Ba1C 3 Poppy11_Pi1E 1 Oliver12_Ce2C 5 Zoe12_Fl2E 4 Becky14_Ce2C 5 Ralph15_FH3E 6 Median Grade 3 3
4.1.4. Procedure of the experimental study
All participants were given two contrasting test pieces (Appendix 1); a ‘happy’ extract, Branle or Allegro (Branle/Allegro, or BA) and a ‘sad’ excerpt, Rain or Adagio (Rain/Adagio, or RAd), three days before the experimental/control lesson to facilitate practice. Initially I planned to have just Branle and Rain, because these were the test extracts I had used in the small exploratory study of my Master’s project (see Introduction, Chapter 1). These two extracts had worked well in the exploratory study, because pupils had perceived these as portraying contrasting emotions; happiness and sadness. As many advanced players signed up for the experimental study too, it was necessary to find two more challenging pieces that would be appropriate for the advanced participants. The Allegro and Adagio excerpts were chosen based on observations in recorder lessons; I had noticed that pupils tend to perceive this Adagio excerpt from a Marcello sonata as conveying sadness and the Allegro (excerpt from Die
Freude by Telemann) as a piece portraying happiness. Thus, different test pieces were
offered to each ability group to ensure that participants received music of an appropriate level. Participants of the lower level group (Grade 1-3, N = 19) received Branle and Rain; intermediate players (Grade 4-5, N = 5) Allegro and Rain; and advanced players (Grade 6-8, N = 5) Allegro and Adagio. After advice from instrumental teachers, extracts were transposed to keys suitable for participants’ instruments. Players of melody instruments received just the melody line. Level 1 pianists could play only the right hand if playing with two hands was too challenging for them.
All pupils participated individually at a time and venue that was convenient for them. For 20 participants the improvisation and experimental sessions took place in a music room at school during their normal school day while for eight pupils the sessions took place after school in a church teaching room, whilst the remaining pupil was tested in my own music studio (as this pupil went to another school). These variations in procedure were accepted with the intention of having a larger sample.
4.1.4.1. Lesson content in the experimental study
the research project again. I emphasized that the aim of the session was to learn more about teaching methods and not to evaluate the pupil’s playing. After that I asked the participant whether they had had time to practice the test extract and whether they found the music easy or difficult to play. I also asked which piece they liked best and I gave each participant the choice to select an extract to start with. After that the participant played through both pieces in the order they had chosen and then we started working on the extract the pupil had selected to play first. I worked with each participant on their pieces conform the group lesson content (i.e. experimental/control teaching).
Control group teaching focused on basic technical and music reading skills. Clapping rhythms and playing scales and arpeggios in the key of the test extract were used to practise difficult passages or rhythms. Furthermore, extemporization was used to improvise tunes with melodic or rhythmic patterns that were similar to some of those in the test extract. Modelling was only used if this was necessary to indicate pitch or clarify a melodic or rhythmic pattern. Modelling was used sparingly as this could potentially influence pupils’ expressiveness. Musical character or interpretation was not mentioned or discussed in control group sessions.
In experimental group lessons the musical character was discussed after similar work on basic technical and music reading skills. Pupils were asked ‘What is the
character of this music?’ The use of expressive tools to convey the musical character
was explored through dialogue, and participants were given the opportunity to try out various ways of playing the music. The musical phrases of the extract were discussed briefly if there was sufficient time to do this. Like in the control group modelling was used sparingly. An overview of experimental and control group lesson content can be found in Table 4.2.
Obviously, there were individual differences in lessons as all children are different; some children needed more help to improve the accuracy of their playing while others could play the pieces already fairly accurately at the start of the lesson (See 5.2. and 5.3.).
Table 4.2. Teaching content of experimental and control group lessons.
Experimental Group Control Group
Basic technical skills Basic technical skills
Notational accuracy Notational accuracy
Scales and arpeggios Scales and arpeggios
‘What is the character of this music?’ Improvisation ‘How can you show this in your playing?’