INSTRUCTION DESIGN MODELS

MapTrix was designed using the guidelines ofGagné and Briggs (1974) andAlexander and Blanchard (1985) who were studying the development of computer-based learning programmes. Decades of research and development in this area, much of it influenced by behavioural psychology, have built up a significant body of knowledge leading to the formulation of various theory-linked models that have generally been divided between two paradigms – early behaviourist inspired models and more recent constructivist inspired models (Tam, 2000).

The instructional design process as described by Moallem (2001: 2) is ‘...the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of an instructional system that meets those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities ... (and the) ... trial and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities’. He stresses the importance of matching the arrangement of the resources and procedures of the instructional design product with learning theories relevant to the acquisition of a body of knowledge or to the skill that must be learned. This emphasises the behaviourist approach suggesting that, with the correct arrangement of stimuli, behaviours and reinforcers, learning is bound to happen, agreeing with Anderson (1997: 521) who defines an instructional design model as a ‘...step-by-step process designed to achieve a particular educational outcome’.

To offer effective learning experiences Naish (1982) urges that the educator must take into account the previous learning, level of motivation and mental ability of learners in order to challenge them, stretching their understanding to new levels. It is important therefore to establish the level where learners are and where they can reasonably be expected to be in order to design relevant learning experiences for them to reach the expected level of attainment. Because there is a specific outcome of the proposed self-instruction programme - improved map analysis skills - the objectives model of planning, as described by Roberts (2002b), was selected. Clarifying the objectives of learning provides guidelines for deciding which teaching and learning activities should be used.

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There has been much emphasis on the value of GIS in education although few definitive studies have emerged to show that it produces better results that other teaching strategies (Bednarz, 2000). This may well be because few other strategies have been developed which produce measurable improvements in spatial competence. Because the outcome of the process of teaching thinking skills is not easily measurable, instructional design products that are developed in this field of expertise fit better within the constructivist paradigm which is more focussed on formative rather than summative evaluation and considers subjective data more valuable than objective data (Tam, 2000).

Formative evaluation also has a role in behaviourist models, when it is used as a learning tool. While assessment itself does not help teachers teach better or learners learn better, it can be used to inform both parties of the progress being made towards improvement (Lambert, 2002; Sutton, 1995; Sadler, 1989). Not only can formative assessment be used to give learners feedback on the standards they have achieved, it can supply feed forward on what they need to do next to attain the required level of performance. By providing a structure within which self-assessment is encouraged and used effectively, learners can monitor their own progress and take action to improve performance but, for training in self-assessment to be effective, it should aim to '... break the pattern of passive learning, make learning goals explicit and establish the 'desired goal – present position – way to close the gap' mentality in pupils' (Lambert, 2002: 130). 'As a task becomes increasingly familiar, many aspects of the task may become automatic, requiring little conscious effort to determine what step to take next and how to implement the next step. A novel task makes demands on intelligence different from those of a task for which automatic procedures have been developed' (Sternberg, 2005: 763). When developing a skill such as map analysis, opportunities for practice are necessary for reducing the time and effort required for the tasks and thereby improving efficiency.

Stott (2004) has summarised constructivist learning theories for the purpose of developing a framework for evaluating instructional design models for computer-based learning using GIS technologies. In developing the higher order skill of interpreting spatial information, there is no doubt that a constructivist model of instructional design would be most appropriate with its characteristics of a non-linear design process which is organic, developmental and reflective; a process during which objectives emerge as work progresses and where the instruction emphasises the goal of personal understanding rather than knowledge acquisition or skill development. When the next phase of the research is undertaken (the interpretation of spatial information using the 16/52 picture cards in the MapTrix programme) then the guidelines of the constructivists will be most useful. However, GIS has been used in MapTrix Geomatica as a means to deliver learning material and not as a tool to foster spatial problem solving. In designing the map analysis self-

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instruction programme where the goal is to develop specific skills, the behaviourist model of instructional design is more appropriate.