In contrast to much of the research literature consulted, this is not a study of how adolescents understand the real world and demonstrate this by reproducing a map of that reality from their internalised cognition of space (e.g. Downs and Stea, 1973a; Kwan, 1996; Herzig and Jarausch, 2003). Rather, it is a study of their purpose-directed use of maps, assessing whether they are able, with the assistance of a structured learning programme, to answer a series of questions about the places represented on maps and to complete eight specific map analysis tasks using relevant spatial information. First establishing that map comprehension has been attained, the investigation then focuses on a measurable means of assessing an aspect of clearly defined spatial analysis capability.
The specific problem identified for attention is topographic map analysis. It is examined in the context of school-based learning from three angles – firstly, the map in the mind or spatial cognitive development (from Downs and Stea, 1973 to Tversky, 2005), secondly, cartographic maps as representations of the world (with guidance from inter alia, MacEachren, 2004) and thirdly, how intelligence is used to perceive, think about and understand the real world (inter alia, Sternberg, 2005). Proposed is the development of a subject-based programme (designed learning environment) for teaching an aspect of Geography aimed at improving learners' spatial analysis skills bearing in mind Ritchhart and Perkins' (2005: 777) caution that with any class of educational intervention '...the most fundamental question to be asked is: Does it work – at least with some populations under some circumstances?'
In this thesis the term map is used to include those at all scales, on all themes and made for all purposes, on screen, paper or any other format as long as they display four basic readability characteristics: title, scale, key and position indicator. While all photographs capture images of the environment and can be instructive, vertical aerial photographs are a key resource in both map compilation and geographic investigation and are thus included under the ambit of spatial information, as are satellite images. Improving the ability to analyse any medium that presents a reasonably accurate, vertical view of part of the earth's surface imparting a sense of place and thus containing spatial information is important. But the scope of this thesis is confined to improving these skills at secondary school level where an important prescribed spatial learning resource is the topographic map.
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Satellite images are introduced to familiarise learners with an important aspect of GIS technology and are used to illustrate the relationship between the relief of a three-dimensional landscape and its representation on a two dimensional map. These images make an important contribution to geographical study but the technical analysis and interpretation of such images and how they are obtained by remote sensing are outside the scope of this thesis.
Because GIS has been included in the new South African school curriculum for Geography in the practical section on map skills (DoE, 2003 and 2008a), it was selected as a medium of delivery for the learning programme and is assessed in this capacity only. The current literature on the role of GIS in spatial concept development has been consulted where relevant and is discussed in Chapter Two (2.5). There is neither an investigation of the technicalities of GIS software, nor of the variety of software programs used for the virtually unlimited applications of GIS technology. Where appropriate, the map extracts used in the exercises are linked via the GIS software to related thematic maps in the accompanying digital atlas. Because the setting for this investigation is South Africa where it is prescribed for geography studies at school level, the focus is on the 1:50 000 topographic map of this country and related spatial data.
1.8 RESEARCH METHODS
Bereiter and Scardamalia (2007) identify three kinds of research relevant to education:
• basic research aimed at understanding a phenomenon and which is conclusion oriented, • decision-oriented research which reviews a practice and proposes its rejection or adoption,
valuable at a policy level and
• research-based innovation, emerging from the fields of applied science and engineering, which determines whether an innovative approach is fruitful and might be improvable or at least lead to the generation of new findings. Crucial to this kind of research is a full understanding of the nature of the problem.
This investigation falls into the last category.
The methodology used is a mixture of applied research and action research. Applied research 'is that type of study concerned with solving practical problems' (Bless and Higson-Smith, 1995: 154) and emphasises the establishment of relationships and the testing of theories (Cohen and Manion, 1985). Action research, which is always participatory, has the researcher and participants (e.g. the GIS- users focus group in Chapter Five and teachers who participate in collaborative learning materials
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development in Chapter Six) bringing equal resources and both learning, alternating between action and research (Bless and Higson-Smith, 1995). Many assumptions about the problem and its solution had to be validated or disproved before the main thrust of the research could proceed.
Each chapter of the thesis addresses one or more specific objectives. The methods used to meet those objectives are summarised in Table 1.5. From the outset, the broad hypothesis of the thesis is that the self-instruction method can be used to improve the analysis of spatial information. Action research allows some flexibility to change the parameters of the instrument design and is usually an attempt to solve a specific problem (low levels of spatial competence), in a specific setting (the final three year phase of secondary school), to meet specific needs (initially improved school leaving geography examination results, ultimately improved spatial competence) (Cohen and Manion, 1985). Taking advantage of the opportunity that arose to deliver the learning materials in the GIS environment (rather than as a paper-based package of materials) is an example of research flexibility.
1.9 CONCLUSION
While the research procedure in Table 1.5 may suggest a clear, evenly paced, chronological process, this is far from the reality of conducting such research. Factors that impeded progress included the author's full-time employment with the NMO during the first two years of the project, a commission to join a team of authors who were writing learning materials for South Africa's new geography curriculum and, towards the end of the process, a teachers' strike that delayed the trials by six months. The protracted period of the research spanned two important developments: the implementation of an outcomes-based curriculum for South African education and its revision (DoE, 2002b) and the introduction and rapid growth of geospatial technologies such as GIS, GPS and the worldwide web. Even more recent is the availability of free access to Google's enormous spatial database, GoogleMaps. While the majority of South African learners in rural areas and in poor urban schools do not yet have easy access to this valuable source of spatial data nor to fully operational GIS technology '... it is open to more people in more places on more days in more ways than anything like it ever before in the history of the world' claims Friedman (2005: 177). Due to these developments the focus of the research has broadened. Ultimately, the data analysis and findings reported in Chapter Nine and discussed in Chapter Ten, now relate as much to a relatively low-technology means of introducing GIS into upper secondary school geography classrooms as
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they do to a means of improving the analysis of spatial information traditionally gleaned from the prescribed study of the 1:50 000 topographic map of South Africa.
Table 1.5 Outline of research procedure
Chapter Objective Research method
1 Place the research into context and establish the seriousness of the problem to be addressed.
Literature search, examination data analysis 2 Clarify the terminology, cognitive concepts and
means of developing spatial competence and match these with the Learning Outcomes in the new National Curriculum for Geography
Search the literature for guidelines for spatial competence development and review curriculum statements for Geography
3 Evaluate whether the MapTrix self-instruction method is effective and whether the programme format is suitable for an advanced skills programme
Conduct a postal questionnaire survey of teachers' and learners' attitudes to MapTrix
4 Evaluate the impact of mathematics and geography teaching on spatial competence
Conduct an experimental case study with school- leavers to compare the influence of their school subject choices on map use performance 5 Identify the spatial skills that are expected of
school leavers
Formulate the learning outcomes for the programme
Conduct a survey of spatial information industry representatives to
• identify and
• rank map analysis skills and to define spatial competence 6 Assess the availability of resources for teaching
map skills
Collaborate with teachers in the development of learner support materials for map analysis Assess the possibility of using computer based training for teaching map skills
Conduct a resource needs survey
Conduct a case study in which teachers were invited to participate in the collaborative writing of map analysis tasks.
Conduct an informal survey of computer facilities available to geography teachers
7 Identify the design components of a self- instruction programme for map analysis Write a learning programme, based on MapTrix, to teach eight map analysis skills
Adapt the learning programme for computer assisted training using a GIS platform Produce a prototype map analysis learning programme
Trial the prototype of the MapTrix Geomatica programme
Select maps to be used for exercises on eight identified map analysis skills
Draft instruction, lesson, exercise and answer texts and assemble illustrative material
Instruct the GIS programme consultant to import the required maps into the database
Assist the GIS training consultant to adapt the programme text for PowerPoint presentation Develop the assessment instruments (pre-and post-tests and questionnaires)
Arrange facilities, find participants and run the trials at four different venues
8 Gather the data to evaluate the MapTrix Geomatica programme from the intervention instruments and the evaluation instruments Evaluate the preliminary map reading programme used to prepare participants for the trials
Encode and enter data from participant information sheets, pre- and post-tests, exercise sheets and opening and closing questionnaires Compare pre-and post test scores for map reading and report results and findings
9 Evaluate:
the impact of the MapTrix Geomatica prototype on map analysis skills
individual components of the prototype with a view to product improvements
the self-instruction methodology
Conduct a statistical analysis of the data from the pre- and post-tests and exercises and compare results to data collected about various participant characteristics and report the results.
Conduct a qualitative analysis of the data from the opening and closing questionnaires, compare this to the quantitative data to assess the opinions of participants and report results.
10 Compare results of analyses and review findings in the light of the aim and objectives
Report findings, draw conclusions and make recommendations.