3.2.1 Context within which MapTrix was developed
Self-instruction was investigated as a possible methodology for learning to read the 1:50 000 topographic map of South Africa (Innes, 1998). The research was undertaken with high school geography learners in mind, especially those at under-resourced schools facing a school-leaving map use examination, whose teachers were ill prepared to help them due to lack of training and resources. Aware of the plight of these learners and teachers, the author was guided in her search for a solution to the ‘mapwork’ problem by her research supervisor Professor John Earle. At the time, he was Head of Geography Education at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (Wits). As the national examination moderator for the geography practical paper, he was also fully aware of the problem, evidenced as it was by poor examination performance. Management of the South African national mapping organisation (NMO) encouraged the research, the staff provided invaluable assistance and the organisation was later instrumental in securing finance for publishing MapTrix (Innes, 2000).1
The shared, self-instruction, loose-leaf work card format places a wide variety of topographic map extracts with a structured geography learning programme directly into learners’ hands. Geography school textbooks (available at the time the research was being conducted) usually contained two or three topographic map exercises. A few specialised map use textbooks were available at the time (Nicholson and Morton, 1967 revised 1974; Liebenberg et al., 1976; Liebenberg, 1986 revised 1992; Blackbeard, 1992; Burton and Pitt, 1993), which have recently been complemented by a new publication based on outcomes based education (OBE) guidelines to prepare learners for the National Senior Certificate (NSC) geography examination (Earle and Bowerman, 2007). No comparable self-instruction programme for learning to read the South Africa topographic map had previously existed.
The principles used to guide the development of the prototype self-instruction programme for map reading were distilled from a review of work in many research areas combined with personal findings while teaching, tutoring and lecturing map use and are presented in Box 3.1.
1
Possible effects of vested interest are acknowledged in the evaluation of MapTrix. Although the author's research interest lay in evaluating the self-instruction method as a means to improve spatial competence, part of the author's line function as a staff member of the NMO was to evaluate the LTSM to assess its effectiveness in relation to the DLA's donation to the DoE. Because there are no comparable publications against which to evaluate MapTrix, great care was exercised in the design of the questionnaire to limit bias in the interpretation of the findings of the opinion survey.
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Box 3.1Guiding principles used for developing self-instruction materials for map reading. (MapTrix)
Reading theory:
(i) A conceptual reference framework must be developed to facilitate reading comprehension i.e. a map user must understand the Geography of the landscape to understand its representation on a topographic map (and must be able to use geographical terminology to read and answer questions). (ii) Full comprehension of geographical information represented by each symbol and word on the map is
the key to understanding maps. Self-instruction methodology:
(i) Effective task analysis identifies an appropriate sequence for teaching skills.
(ii) Foundation skills (map reading) must be consolidated before advanced skills (analysis and interpretation) are taught.
(iii) Skills can only improve with repeated practice. (iv) Immediate feedback reinforces learning. Cartographic communication theory:
(i) The map user has equal responsibility with the mapmaker for creating cartographic meaning (concerted cognitive effort is required from both).
(ii) Teaching how maps are made does not produce proficient map users (just as teaching how rackets are manufactured does not produce good tennis players).
(iii) While improving the skills of proficient map users, teaching cartographic construction techniques (e.g. map projection) just confuses novice map users.
General education theory:
(i) Learning is constructed (or knowledge accumulated) through life experience; where this is limited (e.g. by poverty) provide carefully devised scaffolding.
(ii) Measurable target performance can only be identified from clearly specified learning outcomes. Geography education research:
(i) To improve map skills use active learning (especially fieldwork) where possible, alternately provide vicarious experiences through film, pictures etc.
(ii) Incorporate map studies into all aspects of geography teaching.
(adapted from Innes, 1998)
3.2.2 Map reading programme structure
Table 3.2 Structure of the MapTrix learning programme Main theme (and background
colour)
Suit name and
symbol Sub-theme lesson
Playing cards numbers
Industrial areas Odd numbers Small towns Even numbers Urban Settlement
(Blue)
Clubs
♣
Large cities Picture cards Primary activities Odd numbers Commercial agriculture Even numbers Rural settlement(Green)
Hearts
♥
Subsistence farming Picture cards Railways Odd numbers Road networks Even numbers Transport(Red)
Diamonds
♦
Various transport types Picture cards Mountains Odd numbers Valleys Even numbers Landscape(Brown)
Spades
♠
Plains Picture cardsBecause it was to focus on map reading, map symbols were identified as the key element in the learning programme. Close study of an initial selection of 23 map sheets revealed 93 significant
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named or symbolised features requiring explanation. A means was sought to combine these explanations into lessons and exercises so that learners would have to complete a minimum number of exercises in order to learn about a maximum number of symbols. Various groupings were attempted. By a process of trial and error, groups of symbols were linked to four broad geographic themes: urban settlement, rural settlement, transport and landscape. These categories, selected for the purpose of structuring the programme, may also support place learning by matching the tendency of learners to categorise the world (MacEachren, 2004). Sub-themes were then identified and map extracts sought to illustrate each of them. Text was written for each lesson, sub-lesson and symbol explanation to explain the geographic information on a topographic map especially the associated terminology. Table 3.2 illustrates the categories selected and shows how playing card symbols and numbers, as well as different coloured backgrounds, are used by learners to match work cards and answer cards for self-assessment.
Figure 3.2 The backs of a range of work cards showing lessons and illustrated map symbols
A3 format work cards (see example in Appendix 4.1) provide sufficient space for a map extract and exercise of ten graded questions on one side and the geography lesson and ten illustrated symbol explanations on the other (see Figure 3.2). The extent (52 work and answer cards) provides sufficient material for each member of a class of up to 40 for simultaneous self-study with 12 spare work cards that can be exchanged as learners complete one exercise and go on to the next. The Educators Guide and poster assist with programme implementation, monitoring and follow-up. The Learners Booklet (which can be photocopied onto an A3 page) guides the learner through the
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programme and is used to answer questions, record and graph progress. A 1:2 000 000 wall map of South Africa and an index to the 1:50 000 topographic map series assists teachers to take the first step of the programme which urges them to acquire and display the local topographic map sheet on the classroom wall.
It was through co-operation between the author and senior management of the NMO that funds were secured for publication. The project manager representing the publishers had shown prior interest in the research and took special care to accommodate all specifications. The author was allowed significant influence regarding the design and layout and enjoyed productive co-operation with the graphic designer.
3.2.3 Cartography used for MapTrix
The 1:50 000 topographic map is the base map of the South African national map series consisting of 1 916 sheets, each representing 15' latitude by 15' longitude. Each map extract of 5' x 5', used for a MapTrix work card, represents a significant geographical feature or theme and was selected because it included a predetermined group of map symbols. Descriptive location information was given for each map extract rather than a locator map. Red grid lines at half-minute intervals were superimposed on each map extract with letters used for the rows and numbers for the columns. This alphanumeric grid was indispensable for directing questions and locating answers.
Apart from the reference grid, the actual appearance of the topographic map was left unchanged. The selection of specific, ‘uncluttered’ extracts illustrating specific geography lessons was the only adaptation to meet learners’ needs. Place names of the national map series must comply with the South African place names authority and were not, therefore, amended. Map extracts were selected from a range of areas so that mother-tongue speakers of the eleven official languages were likely to encounter at least some extracts with familiar sounding place names. Learners are guaranteed to encounter at least sixty different words and symbols most commonly used on the topographic map by selecting only one work card on each sub-theme according to the instructions. As more exercises are completed to improve proficiency, so more symbols are encountered. All symbols are listed at the back of the MapTrix Educator’s Guide and referenced to each work card on which its illustrated explanation appears. The maps, lessons and exercises based on learning about the geography of places from their maps are integrated to form a relatively low cost cartographic education tool.