Islamic Work Ethic and Job Satisfaction

Fair practices in procedural justice enhance trust in management and lead to higher employee satisfaction and commitment (Folger & Konovsky, 1989; Konovsky & Cropanzano, 1991). Earlier work has revealed that trust in management is related to affective commitment, job satisfaction, citizenship behaviour and turnover intention (Aryee, Budhwar & Chen, 2002; Colquitt et al., 2001; Ertürk, 2007; Konovsky & Pugh, 1994). Ilies et al. (2007), Hofmann et al. (2003) and Masterson et al. (2000) found similar associations between leader member exchange (LMX) with job satisfaction, affective commitment, and organisational citizenship behaviour and turnover intention. Macromotives are attributed to an individual’s beliefs and feelings about their colleagues for example “my supervisor is trustworthy” (Holmes, 1981). In line with SET, Ruiz‐Palomino, Ruiz‐Amaya and Knörr (2011) found a positive and direct relationship between ethical leadership with job satisfaction and affective commitment. Previous work has confirmed a positive relationship between PDM and productivity, performance, satisfaction and consequently more engagement in citizenship behaviour (Porter, Lawler & Hackman, 1996; Wagner, 1994). The performance of committed employees is better if their sense of engagement is recognised by the organisation especially in PDM (Robinson, Perryman & Hayday, 2004).

Work ethics and the linkages with dimensions of commitment and job satisfaction are extensively studied (e.g., Oliver, 1990; Putti, Aryee & Ling, 1989). Work ethic refers to affirmative attitudes to work (Cherrington, 1980) and many studies on work ethics have concentrated on job satisfaction (Viswesvaran & Deshpande, 1996; Vitell & Davis, 1990; Yousef, 2001). Nonetheless, the potential additional explanatory role of IWE on job satisfaction has not been appropriately addressed (Khan & Abbas, 2012) and few studies have addressed the relationship between work ethics and satisfaction in the Islamic context (Mohamed et al., 2010). The relationship between organisational ethics and job satisfaction can also be explained through theories of dissonance and organisational justice (Koh & Boo, 2001; Viswesvaran et al., 1998). A manager’s awareness of the factors affecting employee satisfaction will enable them to promote methods and strategies to increase it (Rokhman, 2010; Yousef, 2000b). Consultation is a participatory approach that engages the viewpoints of others in making decisions and increases their sense of affiliation and satisfaction (Abuznaid, 2006; Latifi, 1997). Participation in decision making is more likely to support the organisation and make people more committed (Abbasi et al., 2010; Neuman, Edwards & Raju, 1989) and can be understood within a framework of procedural justice and relative fairness which includes

facets of participation and engagement (Folger & Greenberg, 1985; Greenberg, 1990). Likewise, participation in decision making is one of the elements of perceived ethical leadership (Brown et al., 2005).

Consequently, Muslims should engage only in legitimate, ethical and legal (Halal) transactions and businesses (Abuznaid, 2006, 2009; Hashim, 2012). Likewise, an Islamic ethical environment should generate an inner self-motivation to create satisfaction (Haroon, Fakher & Rehman, 2012). The inner motivation comes from inside people after working on a particular job or finishing specific tasks but not external resources such as financial rewards or incentives (Zaman et al., 2013). Cook and Wall (1980) found a relationship between intrinsic motivation and interpersonal trust at work. Similarly, an association between intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction exists (Hackman & Oldham, 1974). Self-enjoyment, interest and pleasure are drivers pushing individuals to engage in tackling problems and achieving tasks such as reward (Zaman et al., 2013). However, this does not mean that employees will not look for external reward and self-development.

Muslim believers are considered brother and sister and a spirit of brotherhood is a dimension of the Unity of Ummah (nation) in Islam. Accordingly their daily conduct in particular in the workplace should be based in this principle (Ibnomer, 1987; Rice, 1999). They should fairly treat each other and avoid discriminating or disgracing their pride based on their religion, economic class, culture, ethnicity or educational backgrounds. Therefore, satisfaction with colleagues can be assured to a large extent (Steers, 1977). Perceptions of organisational fairness and giving them the chance to participate in decision making will increase social exchange relationships, establish trust in management and raise satisfaction (Ali & Al-Owaihan, 2008; Ali, 1987; Smucker, Whisenant & Pedersen, 2003). Given the expected commitment of Muslim managers to IWE principles, including procedural, distributive and interactional justice, ethical conduct is expected to increase perceptions of fairness and will enhance their satisfaction and commitment (Cropanzano et al., 2002; Moorman, 1991). Employees perceive fairness when they judge their treatment and incomes are in keeping with the same ratios held by their colleagues (Adams, 1963). Most studies on employee perceptions of equity/fairness and job satisfaction have reported a positive association between them (Lambert, Hogan & Griffin, 2007; Paik, Parboteeah & Shim, 2007). Individual perceptions of fairness are one of the significant factors affecting trust (Colquitt et al., 2001; Korsgaard et al., 1995). Personal and contextual factors affect trust in management (Chan, 1997). Perceived organisational support is another antecedent of trust (Eisenberger et al., 2004). Earlier studies found that organisational fairness is a key antecedent of trust (Aryee et al., 2002; Pillai et al., 2011).

Perceptions of organisational support are essential for creating trust between two sides especially when the organisation is fulfilling its responsibilities (Rhoades et al., 2001). Therefore, establishment of trust in management is not easy. Perceptions of fairness can be enhanced even prior to recruitment when selection criteria based on IWE and far from any bias or irrelevant influences such as Wasta/nepotism, or political affiliation are used (Namazie & Tayeb, 2006). Fair wages are positively related to organisational productivity (Levine, 1992; Wadhwani & Wall, 1992) and commitment (McElroy, 2001) and dissatisfaction with pay also demotivates employees (Spector, 1997).

Under the doctrine of reward and punishment in the judgement day, supervisors are required to be a model for their subordinates in ethical behaviour at the workplace which could boost satisfaction and commitment (Oldham, 1976). These factors can create an atmosphere of trust, satisfaction, commitment and decrease turnover intentions (Okpara, 2004). Previous studies have shown that work ethic and job satisfaction are closely related (Abboushi, 1990; Koh & Boo, 2004; Khalil & Saad, 2009). These results are consistent with what Elkins (2007) found in Japanese manufacturing firms in the United States. Job satisfaction can negatively or positively influence individual and organisational performance (Mohamed et al., 2010; Spector, 1997; Zaman et al., 2013). Some studies on the impact of work ethics on job satisfaction have produced mixed results (e.g., Koh & Boo, 2004; Okpara & Wynn, 2008). Likewise, many studies have reported a positive impact of work ethics on job satisfaction in religious settings (Mohamed et al., 2010; Rokhman & Omar, 2008; Yousef, 2000b, 2001). This is in line with other earlier empirical work that has found a positive relationship between IWE and job satisfaction (Ali, 1987; Batool et al., 2013; Hayati & Caniago, 2012; Marri et al., 2012; Yousef, 2001) and links to the fact that work ethic is believed to be a reflection of an individual’s attitudes toward different sphere of work including a desire for upward career mobility and toward monetary and non-monetary rewards (Cherrington, 1980). Work ethics boosts employee engagement (Fodor, 1990; Randall & Cote, 1991). Therefore, employees who think that managers are behaving ethically have more potential to promote their satisfaction (Rokhman, 2010). In light of this it is hypothesised that: