Models of Learning

Theorists, such as Piaget, Dewey, Lewin, Fowler, Kolb, Jarvis, Mezirow, et al, all provide models of learning, as discussed above, be they developmental or

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experiential based. What is important to extract from the individual models is that there is a similar thread running throughout. Learning is gradual, incremental and at times cyclical in nature. There is recognition that learning is uniquely individual and the process of that learning is core. Some theorists (Dewey, Kolb, Lewin, Jarvis) have developed ‘learning cycles’ or ‘spirals’ which have differences, but ultimately comprise the following elements: concrete experience; observations and reflections; formation of abstract concepts and generalisations; action, testing implications of concepts in new situations (adapted from Kolb and Fry 1975). For Jarvis (2000) the learning cycle is the process of ‘transforming experience into knowledge, skills attitudes, values and feelings etc’. (2000:58).

Other theories of adult learning include ‘andragogy’ as described in chapter one, championed by Malcolm Knowles (1973) and transformation theory championed by Jack Mezirow, to be discussed in chapter three. Mezirow (2002) asserts that learning is a process of transformation. He states that learning,

is the process of transforming that present experience into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions etc.; it is a matter therefore, of modifying the individual biography, which in its turn will affect the manner by which future situations are experienced (2002:67).

Merriam and Caffarella (1999) offer a synopsis of other learning models including the CAL model offered by Cross (1981) which includes the

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principles of andragogy along with personal and situational characteristics. McClusky’s Theory of Margin acknowledges the centrality of the adults’ life situation, noting it is a period of change and development, growth and integration. Knox’s (1980) Proficiency Theory also places the current role of the person in the centre of the learning dynamic (1999:278-283).

Gangé et al (1992) suggested a nine phase learning instruction. Gaining attention; informing the learner of the objectives; stimulating recall of prerequisite learning’s; presenting the stimulus material; providing learning guidance; eliciting the performance; providing feedback about performance correctness; assessing the performance; enhancing retention and transfer. In 1997 Gangé proposed another nine phase learning process expectancy; attentive; selective perception; coding; storing; memory storage retrieval; transfer; responding; reinforcement.

One of the key theorists used within the ALBA programme is David Kolb, precisely because of the centrality given to the role of experience, the cyclical nature of learning and the understanding of the different developmental issues of adult learners. Kolb (1984) links learning, process and knowledge together saying that:

Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience (1984:38).

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To understand learning, we must understand the nature and forms of human knowledge and the processes whereby this knowledge is created… (1984:36).

Kolb (1984) believes that there is a four stage process cycle of learning, from concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation, and active experimentation. Learning requires both the process of experience and reflective transformative process. Experience without understanding is not enough. There must be a process of comprehension, a transition, a transformation of meaning, leading to a new, active form of learning. Added to this there must also be an awareness of the cultural, biographical and historical aspects that each individual brings into the learning process. As Mezirow and associates say (2002) it is important that learning should ‘emphasise contextual understanding’ within the learning process.

Emerging from this examination of the learning process is the centrality of experience, biographical, cultural, historical, and the individual nature of the learning process for adult learners. Learning involves reflection and action. It involves personal investment and is influenced by the external environment of the learner.

In order to develop a fuller understanding of the process involved for individual learners, attention will now be focused on learning methodologies and styles.

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2.4 Learning Methodology

Bennett (1990) defines learning styles as:

[The] consistent pattern of behaviour and performance by which an individual approaches educational experiences. It is the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviours that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment (1990:140).

Other definitions are provided by Toye (1989) who says that learning style ‘attempts to explain learning variation between individuals in the way they approach learning tasks’ (1989:226-227), James and Blank (1993) define learning style as:

The complex manner in which, and conditions under which, learners most efficiently and most effectively perceive, process, store and recall what they are attempting to learn (1993:47-48).

What is being expressed here is the notion that individual learners find and develop their own personal approaches to learning, which best suits them. This may highlight their personal weaknesses and strengths, and give pointers on how to approach learning which the student may find helpful. These styles may be influenced by past experiences, environmental factors as well as personality types.

A number of theorists have developed their own learning style theories or inventories, the purpose of which is to help the learner discover ways that may

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best suit them as they enter into the process of adult education. This engagement by the student in a form of self-assessment is an important factor in the student’s knowledge of themselves. Marienau’s (1999) study of student’s engaging in self assessment presents fifteen themes that through this process including: students learn from experience; it stimulates reflection and introspection; fosters shifts in perspectives; whets appetite for feedback; help individual to function more effectively; fosters self-agency and authority and enhances a sense of identity (1999:139-142).

There are a number of factors which influence how an adult learns, these include, personality types, educational specialisation, professional career, current job role and adaptive competencies. How an individual learns shapes the course of their personality. Of the many learning style theories that exist, this research will focus primarily on Kolb’s ‘Learning Style Inventory’, and the Jungian based Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) as these are used on the ALBA course.