Desmond Morris was a very popular writer on the subject of non-verbal communication. He and a team of researchers from Oxford University published a guide to the origins and distribution of 20 selected gestures. From information gathered from 40 places across Europe, they were able to identify how commonly each of the gestures occurred and what meanings were attached to them. Their findings indicate how important it often is to know the context in which a gesture is used before trying to interpret its meaning. They also show that a gesture in one part of Europe can sometimes have the opposite meaning from its usual meaning in another. Some of these are illustrated in Figure 4. 1 .
The first gesture Morris's team studied was the
Fingertip Kiss.
In this, the tips of the fingers and thumb are kissed and then the hand is moved quickly away from the mouth and the fingers spread out. It is symbolic of the mouth kiss, which is a gesture used all over the world to show affection. The gesture is most commonly used to indicate praise in Spain, France, Germany and Greece. In Portugal, Sardinia and Sicily it is used as a greeting. Its use is relatively rare in the British Isles and in Italy.A gesture which appeared to have a common meaning all over Europe was the
Nose Thumb,
in which the thumb is placed on the end of the nose and the fingers are fanned out and sometimes waggled. It is generally used as a gesture of mockery or insult. TheFingers Cross,
in which the first and middle fingers are twisted around each other and the remaining fingers are held under the thumb, in contrast, has several meanings. Its main purpose is as a gesture of protection. When someone tells a lie they will cross their fingers (sometimes using both hands) in the superstitious belief that this will prevent the wrath of the gods falling on them for their deceit. This meaning is most common in the British Isles and Scandinavia. In Turkey, the gesture is used to break a friendship. Elsewhere it is used to indicate that something is good or OK, to swear an oath, or as a symbol for copulation.The
Eyelid Pull,
in which the forefinger is placed on the cheekbone and pulled down to open the eye a little wider, means 'I am alert' in France, Germany, Yugoslavia and Turkey. In Spain and Italy, it means 'Be alert'. In Austria, it was found to signal boredom.48 c
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The
Nose Tap,
in which the forefinger is tapped on the side of the nose, conveys complicity, confidentiality or an instruction to maintain secrecy in the British Isles and Sardinia. In Italy, it means 'Be alert'. If the tap is to the front of the nose, it can mean 'Mind your own business' in the British Isles, Holland and Austria.The gesture maps that Desmond Morris and his team constructed for their 20 selected gestures were, to say the least, fascinating. But they can have a practical value as well. For instance, one gesture, The
Thumb Up,
is widely used to request lifts by hitch hikers the world over. If they are travelling through parts of Belgium, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta or Greece, however, they should be aware that it may be interpreted as a sexual insult.Peoplewatching
Many other people have carried out observations and research into gestures since at least 1 600, and the study of gesture can be said to date back to Ancient Rome, with Cicero's
De Oratore.
People have been watching other people and recording and interpreting their gestures for a very long time indeed.
Recent research has been more scientific and systematic. Much of it has focused on what happens when body language is not used normally. Psychiatric patients, as one of their symptoms, exhibit variations of non-verbal behaviour which, by the very fact of being unusual, reflect a useful light on what is customary in everyday social interaction. From such clinical studies the late Albert Scheflen, a distinguished American psychiatrist, identified what he called
quasi-courtship behaviours.
These are behaviours which are normal in the courtship by one person of another, but which mentally ill patients often use inappropriately towards their therapists or other patients; they can, however, also be observed in everyday life when one person is attracted to another. Courtship readiness is usually signalled by such things as high muscle tone, reduced eye-bagginess and jowl sag, decreased slouch, and less stomach and shoulder sag. Preening behaviours can be observed - these include stroking one's hair, straightening one's tie or other clothing, and re-applying make up. There are also actions of appeal or invitation such as flirtatious glances, leg-crossing to expose a thigh, and so on.50 Other research has identified a phenomenon known as
gestural
synchrony.
As a person speaks, his or her bodily movements keep pace in a kind of dance with the rhythms of speech. Listeners' movements also dance to the same 'tune', as it were, as the speaker's. In mentally ill patients, this rhythm is missing - another illustration of how we only notice the existence of something when it is not there: conspicuous by its absence, in fact.Ekman and Friesen noted that certain gestures accompany certain attitudes. A rotating shrug of the hands accompanies feelings of uncertainty and confusion. A hand toss goes with the expression of feeling unable to control one's behaviour. Repetitious foot sliding is noticeable when patients are admitted to psychiatric institutions whereas, on leaving, foot gestures are generally more varied and active.
One research team found that where people are active, with many non-verbal movements, they will be rated as warm, more casual, agreeable and energetic. When the same people are still, with few movements, they will be considered more logical, cold and analytic. It is interesting to note the equation of movement with energy. Clearly, if you want to give an impression of drive and enthusiasm, say, in an interview, you can do it by increased use of gestures.
Some interesting studies have been made of regularities in the act of taking leave of someone. In the last minute or so of an encounter, the person seeking to end it breaks eye contact, leans forward and nods frequendy. The peak of such activity occurs in the last 15 seconds before standing. If one is not then released from the encounter a degree of frustration is experienced because it means the whole procedure has to be gone through again. A clearer example of the importance of attending to others' signals would be difficult to find.