2.4. WELLBEING 92
2.4.2. Objective Wellbeing 93
The concept of objective wellbeing was developed initially in the economic literature and focuses on utility. The concept has broadened as the focus of development has extended to include a wider range of facets of life, in particular, health and education. However, consumption and income as proxy measures of wellbeing continue to underpin the literature. Whilst there is little agreement on how consumption (or income) represents human wellbeing, McGillivray and Clark (2006) suggest one reason for this continued dominance may be data availability and reliability.
With the development of the capability approach, composite measures of wellbeing have been developed, in particular, the Human Development Index (HDI) (UNDP, 1990, 2008). The HDI combines life expectancy, adult literacy, school enrolments and per capita GDP. The development of the Human Development Index has been a major driver of the broadening of social indicators beyond economic indicators. However, as McGillivray and Clarke (2006) note, the reliability of many indicators is questionable. No country conducts a yearly national census and many countries, in particular, low per capita income countries, do not have the resources to obtain accurate or comprehensive data. The range of social indicators commonly measured by the human development approach include: income generated by members of the
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household, household consumption patterns, household investment activity, household inventory (net assets), the dwelling used by the household, the level of education of members of the household, health and mortality, and the observance of human rights within the community. A recent survey of measures of wellbeing undertaken for the Canadian Prime Minister’s Advisory Council on Science and Technology (Sharpe & Smith, 2005) which examined indicators of well‐being in Canada, USA, UK, the Netherlands, Sweden, Australia, New Zealand, Germany and Ireland found a range of measures which are summarised in Table 14 and include:
Table 14: Objective Measures of Well‐being
Economic Social Political/Environmental
GDP (and related income measures) Education Defense commitment
Consumption Health Welfare infrastructure
Inflation Gender Public infrastructure
Employment Culture Land use
Household assets (durables) Life expectancy and mortality Environmental degradation
Demographic changes Observance of human rights
Quality of housing Food production
(Source: Sharpe & Smith (2005))
Economic Wellbeing and Poverty
International development has increasingly sought to develop multi‐dimensional measures of poverty (Addison, Hulme, & Kanbur, 2009, p. 3). Income measures as a proxy for wealth are inherently unreliable in many developing country contexts (Moser & Felton, 2009, p. 104). In part this is due to the prevalence of subsistence production, the use of barter and informal employment which is not included in national statistics. Standard of living approaches using expenditure or consumption as proxy measures resolve some of these issues, but do not resolve self‐sufficiency issues unless imputed measures are used. Moser and Felton arguing in favour of asset measures, suggest asking people what they own from a list of assets has less likelihood of recall or measurement issues (Moser & Felton, 2009, p. 109). This is particularly the case where income cannot be verified and must be estimated retrospectively (arguably, it is the consistency of the amount estimated across households engaging in similar activities which is of interest in these circumstances, rather than the amount retrospectively estimated). Moser and Felton describe several means of determining a capital value for household assets: the use of prices (cardinal measure), the use of units (binary measure), and the use of asset classes.
There are several income and expenditure and poverty assessment tools available to measure objective wellbeing. The unit of measure is typically the household. A significant number of
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tools, however, are designed for large scale social assessments, for example the World Bank Poverty and Social Impact Analysis methodology (World Bank, 2003); the widely used Living Standard Measurement Survey (LSMS)24 (Grosh & Glewwe, 1998; Zeller, 2004); the ESRC Research Group on Well‐being Income and Expenditure surveys25 and the USAID IRIS Centre Project for Developing Poverty Measurement Tools26 . These large scale household questionnaires collect data on a broad range of aspects of household welfare, including household income and expenditure, education, health, and household composition. Deployed nationally the tools can be used to estimate national income and to develop poverty lines. However they have limited application in measuring program impact or community standard of living due to logistical complexity (Zeller, 2004, p. 6).
Several agencies have developed tools to measure objective wellbeing within the context of microfinance. USAID has developed the Accelerated Microenterprise Advancement Project Poverty Assessment Tools27, and CGAP has developed Microfinance Poverty Assessment Tool (C. Henry, Sharma, Lapenu, & Zeller, 2003)28. These instruments attempt to capture a range of dimensions of household standard of living, including household demographics, economic activity, household assets including the adequacy of housing, and food security. A poverty index is then constructed. The CGAP approach is relative and does not measure participation in education or the health of household members, whilst the AIMS approach is absolute. Dunn (1997) in a paper examining household income diversification for the USAID Microenterprise Impact Project has proposed a household economic portfolio approach as a superior modality to simple enterprise growth measurement. Dunn, argues, a failure of a microenterprise to achieve growth may not be an indicator of a failure of microenterprise financing. Rather, cash may have been used by the household to improve wellbeing. The USAID tool is very comprehensive and requires extensive administrative and logistical support. The tool is suited to a standalone baseline or calibration study. The CGAP tool provides a framework for a data collection instrument rather than a fully developed instrument. The tool is designed to be contextualised and to enable the development of a situated poverty index. Accion International, a microfinance support organisation focusing principally on Latin American countries, has also developed a poverty assessment tool (Horn‐Welch & Devaney, 2002). The AIMS Project has recommended the development of Household Economic Portfolios (Chen & 24 http://econ.worldbank.org 25 http://www.welldev.org.uk/ 26 http://www.povertytools.org 27 http://www.povertytools.org 28 http://www.cgap.org/p/site/c/template.rc/1.9.3004/
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Dunn, 1996; Dunn, 1997; Little, 1997). The Household Economic Portfolio approach emphasises (inter alia) the close relationship between household cash flows and income generating activity (in particular, small enterprise and agricultural activity) and the difficulty of untangling the nexus between commercial and household activity. The AIMS approach assumes capital and income are fungible across household and enterprise activities and across sets of expenditure, and investment activities assets are fungible across the household. The approach focuses on assets (as a primary use of income) and expenditure (as an indicator of income levels and income changes) and views asset ownership as an important means of differentiating households and enterprises. The model proposes an ordinal ranking of wealth/economic well‐being based on defined sets of assets, education levels and other related criteria as a simple means of categorising households. The Asian Development Bank has developed a model to support the evaluation of microfinance savings product innovations (Ashraf et al., 2003). The model incorporates a set of templates for data collection. The templates enable a comprehensive picture of household and enterprise economic activity to be developed. None of the microfinance tools reviewed incorporates questions to determine the participation in education by members of the household, or the health of members of the household.