Reflective-Impulsive-Model

The previous part, raises the need to find an overarching model integrating the different per- spectives and approaches. Following this rationale to focus on the integration of the dif- ferent dual-processing theories and models, the reflective-impulsive-model of human judge- ment and decision making has been proposed (Strack & Deutsch, 2006, 2004). The reflective- impulsive-model evolved mainly in a series of two related papers of Strack and Deutsch (Strack & Deutsch, 2006, 2004). Based on research in consumer and social psychology, the authors reviewed findings from cognitive psychology to integrate the different predictive aspects of existing dual-processing frameworks. For that purpose, they postulated ten theses summariz- ing the key characteristics of their model, which are generalizations of existing dual-process models and findings from cognitive psychology.

The foundation of these theses is the assumption, as in other dual-processing theories, that two type of processes are organized in two different systems in the human brain, and that they follow different operating principles (Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Finally, human behaviour is considered to be the result of a joint function of these two systems:

"Basic assumption. Social behaviour is the effect of the operation of two distinct sys- tems of information processing: a reflective system and an impulsive system. The systems can be specified by different principles of representation and information processing."(Strack & Deutsch, 2004, p.222).

According to Strack and Deutsch, these two systems differ in the way they produce a be- havioural response. The reflective system results in an intention that activates behavioural schemes, while the impulsive system results in a spreading activation. The latter is a kind of unconscious reflex, processed without intention. While the main purpose of the reflective system is active and conscious thinking and reasoning, the impulsive system relies on the he- donistic principle of avoiding negative experiences and increasing positive stimulation (Strack & Deutsch, 2004, p.241).

The impulsive system continuously processes new information, what people perceive as con- tinuous stream of consciousness, while the reflective system is active only when it receives a salient input (based on intensity and attention level), or when the impulsive system or the behavioural outcome prompts an error in the decision-making. As a consequence there are two ways of decision-making: Both systems work in parallel, or the impulsive system works alone (Strack & Deutsch, 2004).

Considering the knowledge base of the two systems, the impulsive system operates with input from an associative network (all associations built by experiences by the individual), and the

current motivational focus of the individual. This so-called associative store, provides numer- ous schemes and associations as an input for decision-making. For instance, if a consumer sees fruits on a packaging, the associations "healthy" or "fresh" are automatic associated with the packaging. The other system, the reflective system, uses factual and value-associated knowl- edge. It works on a sub-symbolic level, and uses pattern-matching and symbolic procedures. It compares the perceived patterns with patterns from memory, for instance remembering that a fruit symbol does not mean that something is healthy. The reflective system prescribes that instead the ingredients like sugar or fat should be compared, and provides this information. Furthermore, the reflective system can add relation or "knowledge" into the associative store, which provides the associative links for the impulsive system. Elements that are linked in the reflective system can be also linked in the impulsive system. However, both knowledge rep- resentations are encoded in the neural network of the brain, and consequently the differences are on a computational level (see also Section 2.1.3).

Another relevant aspect is that the two systems have different processing capacities. The impulsive system is very fast, and it places only very low demands on cognitive resources. On the other hand, the reflective system requires high cognitive capacity, and as a result different reflective processes can work only serially and not in parallel. Furthermore, the capacities of the reflective systems are sensitive to high or low levels of arousal, hence different levels of arousal influence the interaction of the two systems, and the subsequent decision-making (Strack & Deutsch, 2004, p.223). In particular, in judgement and decision-making research, there is increasing evidence that the influence of the reflective system is reduced by arousal (Strack & Deutsch, 2004). For instance, in psychological research, arousal has been linked to simplified heuristic or stereotypic decision-making (Bodenhausen, 1993). Studies report a direct association between arousal and intense indoctrination (Baron, 2000), or in financial decision-making in electronic markets (Adam, Krämer, & Müller, 2015).

Figure 10:The reflective-impulsive-model of human decision-making according to Strack and Deutsch.

The interaction of the two types of processes (as illustrated in Figure 10) is described in the following manner: Firstly, the impulsive system activates different associations or associative

clusters in the associative store based on the input it receives. Even if the processing is uncon- scious, it may result in different feelings "without syllogistic processes of inference" (Strack & Deutsch, 2004, p.224). The reflective system is activated if the behavioural schemata of the impulsive systems are in conflict with each other or with the situation. An example of such a situation is as follows: One schemata proposes to run away, while another schemata proposes to sit down, and calm down. The solution of this process conflict is computed by comparing the strength of the different schemata. If the activation of the schema of the impulsive or the reflective system reaches a specific threshold, the behaviour is activated (Strack & Deutsch, 2004, p.229).

Table 6:Overview of the key characteristics of the reflective-impulsive theory, based on Strack and Deutsch (2004).

Component Reflective-Impulsive-Model

Decision-making Decisions are made continuously by an impulsive system, or de- liberatively based on the reflective system

System 1 Fast, parallel, effortless, associative System 2 Slow, serial, effortful, reflective

Measures Manipulating or measuring individual’s arousal as an approach to measure the influence or activation of the two systems (Strack & Deutsch, 2004, p.223)