Spanish explorers describe the colony in

On 13 March 1793, a Spanish scientific expedition commanded by Don Alexandra Malaspina anchored in the lower part of Sydney harbour. Under his command were two corvettes of the Spanish Royal Navy— his own, the Descuvierta and Captain Don Jose de Bustamante y Guerra's Atrevida. 'They were well manned, and had, beside the officers customary in king's ships, a botanist and limner on board each vessel'. The colony had known of their intended arrival since 1790 and the English

government had commanded the colonial government pay them every attention. Malaspina planned to make astronomical investigations while in Sydney and for their purposes they were allowed to erect a small observatory on the ridge above what is now Bennelong Point in Sydney. It was then the site of Bennelong's brick hut which was used to store their equipment. The hut was still a focal point for the activities of Aboriginal people living within the settlement and the Spanish attracted considerable interest (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:230-31).

The presence of strangers in the colony was a diversion for the administration for whom life had become routine and predictable. Trade ships were welcomed for their society as much as their goods and they regarded a scientific expedition as a bonus for the intellectual company it brought. The enquiries of the Spanish also encouraged the colonists to rekindle their interests in their surroundings and the Aboriginal population (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:232).

Included in the reports produced by the Spanish are observations about Aboriginal people and their relations with the colonists. The expedition's artist, Juan Ravenet, also produced some sketches of the people. The reports are the only non-English produced documents for this period and are provide useful for comparative material (King 1986:47). Malaspina's report largely agrees with the British colonists' own assertions that Aboriginal people were becoming settled within the colony due to fair and kind treatment.

The measure taken by the English for their civilisation have been quite humane and prudent. We have seen gathered and cared for with the greatest kindness, several Boys and Girls. Others, both men and women, although entirely naked and disgustingly dirty, have been admitted to the same Room where we were eating, and have been regaled with one or other dainty from the same Table. .. .at times in the principal Streets of the Colony itself they have danced and sung almost the whole night around a campfire, without anyone molesting them. (Malaspina

1793a: 106)

Malaspina asserted that Aboriginal people were free to sojourn amongst the colonists and to quit the settlement when it suited (Malaspina 1793a: 106). However, he believed that ultimately the colony was not a benefit to the Aboriginal population as the patronage of the colonists was making the people dependent on their charity.

They take and solicit what one gives them without any labour; at the most some serve as domestics but without any ability and work less than it takes to keep them clothed. (Malaspina 1793b: 149)

Louis Nee, one of the expedition's naturalists, observed that the Spanish were rapidly incorporated within the Aboriginal patronage system.

The dealings which the natives have had with those in the colony have already made them familiar. I saw them several times approach without suspicion, and they asked me insistently for whatever I had. .. .1 gave them several biscuits.. .and no sooner had they received them than they went away to hide them, returning then to beg for others. (Nee 1793:161)

Malaspina also observed that Aboriginal people attempted to accommodate the colonists by 'imperfectly adapting' the culture and language of the colony (Malaspina

1793b: 144). For example, he suspected that the ease with which the 'females

prostituted themselves' was a 'vice acquired from contact with Europeans' (Malaspina 1793b: 146). He observed that 'each night a large number of them are gathered in the quarters of the troops' (Malaspina 1793b: 148). Nee observed that the Aboriginal women appeared to 'have a blind passion for strangers, they offer themselves without reserve to the pleasure of whoever solicits them; even those already civilised and partly clothed disrobe without blushing' (Nee 1793:160). 'The venereal

disease.. .made cruel inroads' amongst the Aboriginal people as a result of the sexual freedom the women allowed the colonial men (Nee 1793:160).

The Spanish believed that the Aboriginal population posed a serious threat to the colony's prosperity. Their practice of regularly burning the country destroyed valuable crops and 'their treachery in taking unawares and killing immediately whoever carelessly goes inland without Arms made them dangerous adversaries' (Malaspina 1793a: 106). However, the government's brutal suppression of Aboriginal opposition to the colony ensured that the people kept 'generally good harmony with the Europeans'.

Punishment has made them cautious in this regard; there are very few tribes which do not maintain a strict subordination to the English, and the inequality in arms has extinguished or removed the discontented. The mere sight of a musket, the

appearance of the uniform of a soldier, would scatter an army of natives, who with signs of peace and submission take pains to capture their goodwill— in contrast to their behaviour toward the unarmed citizen travelling by himself, several of whom have been the victims of their lack of precaution. (Malaspina 1793b: 148-49)

There are no census records of the Aboriginal population of the Sydney district for this period. However, anecdotal comment suggests that there were far fewer

Aboriginal people than colonists in the vicinity of the settlement. Malaspina observed that 'the Inhabitants of all these parts are without doubt very small in number' which was contributed to by the recent smallpox like epidemic (Malaspina 1793a: 105-6).

The Spanish were surprised that the colony was in a generally poor state in spite of its population of four thousand people many of whom had a trade. The town of Sydney appeared 'disorderly' with its three hundred houses clustered according to an unfathomable plan. The land was 'ill-cleared, fields little worked, wretched houses, and everywhere the marks of oppression and disgust' (Malaspina 1793b: 135). Parramatta, eighteen miles west of Sydney town, was praised as a fertile settlement with beautiful views, three neat, open rows of houses with excellent orchards and gardens leading up to government house set on a rise above an amphitheatre of flowers. Parramatta's progress was deemed 'infinitely greater than that of the other'.

The fields of Parramatta stretched four miles to a third, new and undeveloped settlement— Toongabbie (Malaspina 1793b: 138).

3 .2 .1 .2 Spread of settlement across the Cumberland Plain

In 1793 much of the 'vacant' land that still provided a little autonomy for the Aboriginal people of Sydney was built upon or developed as farming land. The settlement became a solid block of continuous occupation.

The town of Sydney had this year increased considerably; not fewer than one hundred and sixty huts, beside five barracks, having been added since the departure of Governor Phillip. .. .These huts extended nearly to the brickfields, whence others were building to meet them, and thus to unite that district with the town. (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:275)

By May 1793 the colony had become almost fully self-supporting, much to the relief of all the colonists who had experienced short rations on a regular basis.

Separated as we were from Europe, constantly liable to accidents interrupting our supplies, which it might not always be possible to guard against or foresee, how cheering, how grateful was it to every thinking mind among us, to observe the rapid strides we were making toward that desirable independence! The progress made in the cultivation of the country insured the consequent increase of live stock; and it must be remembered, that the colony had been supplied with no other grain than that raised within itself since the 16th day of last December [1793]. (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:307)

At the same time there were 'four thousand six hundred and sixty-five acres and three quarters of cleared ground in this territory’ (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:308). The

environmental impact was profound. The local flora and fauna which supplied Aboriginal people with their diet were replaced with imports. Without sufficient of their own resources Aboriginal people learnt to rely on the colonial substitutes, taking them forcibly when they were not freely given.

The colonists became aware of many changes in the natural world that resulted from their interference in the land management practices of Aboriginal people. For example, the number of snakes in the Sydney district increased dramatically when the

land was cleared and the bush was no longer being regularly burnt by Aboriginal people.

While we lived in a wood, and might naturally have expected to have been troubled with them, snakes and other reptiles were by no means so often seen, as since, by clearing and opening the country about us, the natives had not had opportunities of setting the woods so frequently on fire. But now they were often met in the different paths about the settlements, basking at mid-day in the sunshine, and particularly after a shower of rain. (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:399)

The destruction of their traditional mode of living acted as a powerful inducement to Aboriginal people to become dependent on the resources of the colony. In the absence of any real choices or alternatives, the people of the Sydney district adapted to the changed socioeconomic environment. They developed a new economic system centred around the colony and its resources. A number of Aboriginal people established their place in the colony by offering their services as guides and

messengers. Some colonists were convinced that Aboriginal people would become functioning members of the colony's working class.

With attention and kind treatment, they certainly might be made a very serviceable people. I have seen them employed in a boat as usefully as any white person; and the settlers have found some among them, who would go out with their stock, and carefully bring home the right numbers though they have not any knowledge of numeration beyond three or four. (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:499)

Certainly, a number of Aboriginal people became fundamental to the workings of the colony. They were relied upon for the information they could provide about the environment and its resources and were invaluable as trackers of escaped stock and runaway convicts. The cattle which had escaped from the First Fleet were eventually found, in late 1795, after the colonists investigated reports by Aboriginal people that they had sighted the animals (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:343). Aboriginal people also regularly informed on escaped convicts who were in hiding (Collins, vol. 1,

1975:404). There is evidence that, by 1795, Aboriginal children were being used as labourers by colonists.

Several native boys, from eight to fourteen years of age, were at this time living among the settlers in the different districts. They were found capable of being

made extremely useful; they went cheerfully into the fields to labour, and the elder ones with ease hoed in a few hours a greater quantity of ground than that generally assigned to a convict for a day's work. Some of these were allowed a ration of provisions from the public stores. (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:339)

By June 1794 the colony was thriving on its own resources and continuing to expand.

It might be safely pronounced that the colony never wore so favourable an appearance as at this period: our public stores filled with wholesome provisions; five ships on the seas with additional supplies; and wheat enough in the ground to promise the realizing of many a golden dream; a rapidly increasing stock; a country gradually opening, and improving every where upon us as it opened; with a spirit universally prevalent of cultivating it. (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:314)

The authorities hoped that free settlers would be induced to emigrate to the colony when its success was reported in England (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:314).

The uses made of the land in and around the colony all combined to dispossess Aboriginal people of their country. They could not occupy land on which buildings were raised and were only allowed to remain on farming land with the consent of its colonist owner. Even where land was not physically taken from its Aboriginal

owners, they often experienced spiritual dispossession when colonists made use of the land in ways that Aboriginal people found inappropriate and abhorrent. One of the worst examples occurred when colonists defiled a favourite Aboriginal recreational site in Sydney.

The court having ordered that Francis Morgan should be hung in chains upon the small island which is situated in the middle of the harbour and named by the natives Mat-te-wan-ye, a gibbet was accordingly erected, and he was hung there,

exhibiting an object of much greater terror to the natives, than to the white people, many of whom were more inclined to make a jest of it; but to the natives his appearance was so frightful— his clothes shaking in the wind, and the creaking of his irons, added to their superstitious ideas of ghosts (for these children of

ignorance imagined that, like a ghost, this man might have the power of taking hold of them by the throat), all rendering him such an alarming object to them— that they never trusted themselves near him, nor the spot on which he hung; which, until this time, had ever been with them a favourite place of resort. (Collins, vol. 2,

1975:7)

That same beautiful island was levelled in the early nineteenth century and the ugly Fort Denison erected on it in anticipation of a French naval attack on the colony.

Aboriginal people joined the settlement's economy, trading their labour and produce for food and artefacts. The literature of the time contains many references to their increasing dependence on bread as a staple in their diet.

Several of these people.. .reside in the town, and.. .mix with the inhabitants in the most unreserved manner. It was no uncommon circumstance to see them coming into town with bundles of fire-wood which they had been hired to procure, or bringing water from the tanks; for which services they thought themselves well rewarded with any worn-out jacket or trousers, or blankets, or a piece of bread. Of this latter article they were all exceedingly fond, and their constant prayer was for bread, importuning with as much earnestness and perseverance as if begging for bread had been their profession from their infancy; and their attachment to us must be considered as an indication of their not receiving any ill treatment from us. (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:249)

Their begging in the streets for bread or money to buy bread became a great source of irritation to the colonists. Aboriginal people were also very fond of com and often stole it from town gardens or farms. Once when a boat went down with a load of com they were seen diving for the cobs 'and recovered a great quantity of the com'

(Collins, vol. 1, 1975:273). The colonists' dogs were also coveted by Aboriginal people— 'they eagerly besought us to give them puppies of our spaniel and terrior breeds; which we did; and not a family was without one or more of these little watch dogs, which they considered as invaluable guardians during the night' (Collins, vol.

1, 1975:461).

The desire of Aboriginal people for the goods obtainable in the settlements was considered to be the main reason for their depredations against the colony. As early as June 1793, it was reported that Aboriginal people were mugging colonists and

thieving in order to obtain a regular supply of the goods to which they had become accustomed.

The natives had lately become troublesome, particularly in lurking between the different settlements, and forcibly taking provisions and clothing from the convicts who were passing from one to another. One or two convicts having been wounded by them, some small armed parties were sent out to drive them away, and to throw a few shot among them, but with positive orders to be careful not to take a life. (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:249)

In January 1794, Aboriginal people raided the settlement at Parramatta to obtain clothing and food.

These people.. .had not been so quiet in the neighbourhood of Parramatta. Between that settlement and Prospect Hill some settlers had been attacked by a party of armed natives and stripped of all their provisions. Reports of this nature had been frequently brought in, and many, perhaps, might have been fabricated to answer a purpose; but there was not a doubt that these people were very desirous of possessing our clothing and provisions; and it was noticed, that as the corn ripened, they constantly drew together round the settlers farms and round the public grounds, for the purpose of committing depredations. (Collins, vol. 1,

1975:285)

In April 1794, Collins reported thefts from the most successful farms on the banks of the Hawkesbury River. 'The natives.. .had given such interruption, as induced a necessity for firing upon them, by which, it was said, one man was killed' (Collins, vol. 1, 1975:304). They were also very active at Toongabbie, a settlement farmed mainly by male Irish convicts.

At Toongabbie, where the Indian corn was growing, their visits and their

depredations were so frequent and extensive, that the watchmen stationed for the protection of the corn-grounds were obliged to fire on them, and one party, considerable in number, after having been driven off, returning directly to the plunder, was pursued by the watchmen for several miles, when a contest ensued in which the natives were worsted, and three were left dead on the spot. The

watchmen had so often come in with accounts of this nature, that apprehensive lest the present transaction should not be credited, they brought in with them, as a testimonial not to be doubted the head of one of those whom they had slain. With this witness to support them, they told many wonderful circumstances of the pursuit and subsequent fight, which they stated to have taken place at least fourteen miles from the settlement, and to have been very desperately and obstinately

sustained on the part of the natives.. .Whatever might have been the truth, it is certain that a party of natives appeared the following day about the com grounds, but conducted themselves with a great deal of caution, stationing one of their party upon the stump of a tree which commanded an extensive view of the cultivated grounds, and retreating the instant they perceived themselves to be

observed... From the quantities of husks and leaves of com which were found scattered about the dwelling places of these people, their depredations this season