STANDARD REFERENCES

Certain references are consulted first whenever there is a systematic library search. The librarian can provide information about the availability of these sources although the best way to become familiar with the basic references is to study the organization of their contents carefully.

2.1.1. ENCYCLOPEDIAS

Encyclopedias are the most important example of standard references. They contain summaries of research studies arranged by topics. The content of each topic has been prepared by a specialist who volunteered to summarize research findings for his specific area of interest. These summaries cannot be considered as substitutes for the original research reports but can be used for screening purposes to limit the scope of the library search. If a study appears relevant, a reference to the original source is provided at the end of each section. Because of the time required to prepare a comprehensive encyclopedia, studies in print less than one year before the publication date of a given encyclopedia will probably not be described in that source.

Recently, the major encyclopedias of the world have been marketed in the form of CD-ROM volumes that can be viewed on personal computers. Updates of these electronic encyclopedias are available on the Internet. The major volumes that are available in electronic format are Encyclopedia Americana, Encyclopedia Africana, Encyclopedia

Encarta, and Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Encarta is perhaps

the best in this rich aristocracy of electronic encyclopedias.

2.1.2. DICTIONARIES

Dictionaries are the constant companions of a researcher. Because a researcher must define terms with precision, a knowledge of which dictionaries to use is an inevitable part of successful library research. Among the better-known general dictionaries are the Oxford English

Dictionary (12 volumes), Dictionary of American English on Historical Principles (4 volumes), Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary,

and Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language. More specialized dictionaries are also needed at times. Longman

Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics by Richards,

Platt, and Platt (1985) is one such dictionary. A Dictionary of Linguistics

and Phonetics by David Crystal (1980) is another specialized dictionary.

Students of English literature will also find valuable information in specialized dictionaries of their own field.

2.1.3. THESAURI

Thesauri are a new type of reference. A thesaurus is a reference book that has been compiled in conjunction with the development of information retrieval systems. A thesaurus of descriptors is a list of words and phrases that indexers use to describe a periodical article or research report so that it can be stored for future search and retrieval. Researchers can use them to search for information that has been stored in the system. Two of the thesauri that provide indexers and researchers with a common communication system are (1) The New York Times

Thesaurus of Descriptors: A Guide for Organizing, Indexing, and Searching Collections of Information on Current Events, and (2) The Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors.

2.1.4. ALMANACS AND YEARBOOKS

A wealth of current information may be found in almanacs and yearbooks. The World Almanac, published from 1868 to the present, affords up-to-date statistics and data concerning events, progress, and conditions in a wide variety of fields. The librarian can tell you which almanac best suits your research needs.

2.1.5. BIOGRAPHY INDEXES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES

When carrying out a research study, one may have to obtain a specific fact about a person, such as his birthdate, degrees, publications, present position, or professional affiliations. This type of information as well as information concerning the background, competency, prestige, or biases of a person, may be found in encyclopedias or in biography indexes. Here again, the librarian can tell you which biography index best suits your research needs.

Compiling a bibliography is one of the first and one of the last things a researcher may need to do in conducting a study. This essential task is

less arduous and time-consuming if the researcher is well acquainted with the various labor-saving devices at his disposal. He may find books and periodicals in the library that will help him locate bibliographies that have already been compiled. Of course, the bibliographies will vary in type and quality; some will be exhaustive and others selective or brief; some will be annotated—providing brief descriptions of each source— and others not. If the bibliographies are compiled by experts in the field and give clues to the content, general value, scholarship, and significant features of the publications, that is, if they are annotated, they may save the researcher weeks of searching time.

2.2. BOOKS

Material included in textbooks and other expository works may contain authoritative information that is very helpful to the research worker. Unfortunately, the contents of books are seldom classified in external sources in sufficient detail to insure complete access by conventional search methods. The sources of such information follow.

Author subject card index: All libraries contain card catalogues. Many

provide an author-title index and a subject index. The author-title index is an alphabetical listing of all the titles and a separate listing for authors; for example, three cards would be found in the author-title index for a book titled Recreation by Jones and Smith, one under "recreation" and one for each author. A card entry would also be found under "recreation" in the subject catalogue and also, depending on the contents of the book, references may be found under "camping," "fishing," "wild life," "golf," or "bird watching."

Each card in the author-subject card index will usually contain either a cross-reference to another card or information regarding the (1) author or authors, (2) title, (3) date of publication, (4) description of contents, and (5) Library of Congress card number.

Subject headings: This source published by the Library of Congress is a

valuable adjunct to the card catalogue system developed by the college library. As an example, if the researcher is unable to find a desired topic in the regular card catalogue, use of Subject Headings will indicate other categories where the topic might be found. Because many libraries use

volume is usually conveniently located near the main card catalogue. The library staff can assist in its use.

Books in print: This source is an author and title series index to the Publishers Trade List Annual. It contains a listing of most books Printed

by 1,400 American publishers and includes more than 163,000 entries. Included is a reference to author, title, publisher, and cost; however, books, published in English in foreign countries, government documents, certain law volumes, and many paperback editions are not listed. Listings are divided into two sections; in the first, publications are arranged alphabetically by author. The second section contains an alphabetical listing of titles. Often, when only the author or title of a work is known, Books In Print will enable the researcher to obtain sufficient additional information to provide a complete bibliographic reference.

Cumulative book index: Issued since 1938, this source contains a listing

of all books published in the English language; therefore, its coverage is somewhat broader than Books In Print. The source, however, does not list government documents.

Books out of print: Frequently the researcher is unable to obtain a

published volume in the library or through an interlibrary loan because it is out of print. Several methods for acquiring such a source can be used. First, the librarian can be requested to place the bibliographic reference on an out-of-print list which is circulated among librarians and book readers. Second, he can examine listings in the Antiquarian Bookman available from Box 1100, Newark, New Jersey. This periodical contains commercial listings of rare and out-of-print volumes. Third, the researcher can contact University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, to determine whether facsimiles of the volume are available on microfilm or xerographic enlargements.