Value Definitions

The study has already mentioned the challenge of working with values, particularly when the understanding of values can often be varied and mixed. This can be associated with how people can often refer to values one time or another, their own values or the values that characterise other people or groups. Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) provide an example when they indicate how values can be seen as qualities inherent in objects. For the purposes of the research this needs to be clearly clarified. Rohan (2000) offered a comprehensive review of value related theory and research, as with many theories which have developed over time there is often relative

disagreement over what values are. Literature has indicated values are internal states: principles (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961; Schwartz, 1994); beliefs (Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987); schemas (Feather, 1975); criteria (Williams, 1979; Schwartz 1992; Hechter, 1993); standards (Kohn and Schooler, 1983); tendencies (Hofstede, 1980); Goals (Schwartz, 1994); or cognitions (Verplanken and Holland, 2002). Table 3.1 ‘Values Definitions’ provides an initial overview of various value definitions proposed over the years as values theory has developed. However, Rohan (2000) did not include Allport and Vernon (1931) ‘A Study of Values’ which the study would argue was at the forefront of the development of ‘values theory’ as we know it today. For that reason Allport and Vernon (1931) have been added to the table. One of the leading definitions within literature from Table 3.1 is Rokeach (p5, 1973); “an enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferred modes of conducts or end states of existence along a continuum of importance.”

Wilson (2004) suggests this is the most frequently cited definition of values, this broad statement may have some basis, since the definition has been cited over many years by some of the leading authors in values theory (Hofstede, 1976; Feather 1998; Schwartz

and Bilsky 1987 and 1995; Verplanken and Holland, 2002), Rokeach (1973) indicates values are more fundamental components within a person’s make up than attitudes and moreover, that values are determinants of attitudes and behaviours. Similarly,

Hofstede (1976) acknowledges the internal programme of values on attitudes and behaviours. Even before Rokeach (1973) definition early researchers into values

acknowledged the influence of values on personal conduct (Cantril and Allport, 1933). However, as Table 3.1 indicates there are many proposed definition of values earlier theories indicate values have been based around what they perceived as desirable end states, which has a personal ranking of principles for those individuals (Kluckholm, 1951; Kluckholm, & Strodtbeck, 1961). Such definition would appear to have

provided the basis for Rokeach (1973) definition which later theories have developed further. Feather (1975) suggests values can be described as the beliefs about how to behave and what goals are important to achieve. Schwartz (1992) has taken values definition further by adding more detail to the definition he states 5 keys aspects of values, these being values 1) are concepts or beliefs; 2) pertain to desirable states or behaviours; 3) transcend specific situations; 4) guide selection or evaluation of behaviour and events and 5) are ordered by relative importance.

Although, Rohan (2000) has indicated there may be disagreement in what values are, there would appear a common strand throughout the definition mentioned in Table 3.1. Values are deeply rooted, abstract motivations that guide, justify and may explain attitudes norms and behaviours. What would appear as a potential development area of values with the other areas of the research, relate to the preferred end states discussed within the various values definitions. This may be linked to organizational

development and the end state of organizations particularly around their ability to meet the vision, mission and purpose, through aligned values. A further area of

development of values, as outlined within the definitions may be around values and organizational commitment, since the definition of organizational commitment

discussed within the study highlights the willingness to exert a considerable amount of effort on behalf of the organization. This may be interpreted as a series of actions the individual values has influenced. In moving on from the values definitions a further insight into some of the leading values theories outlined in Table 3.1 will be critiqued in the following section.

Table 3.1 Value Definitions

Author Definition of Value

Allport and Vernon (1931)

Six basic interests which influence/motivate individual(s) on a personal level in their attitudes towards everyday activities Kluckholm (1951) A concept of the desirable which influences the selection

from available modes, means and ends of action Kluckholm &

Strodtbeck (1961)

Value orientations are complex but definitely patterned (rank ordered) principles

Rokeach (1973)

An enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end- state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence

Feather (1975)

Abstract structure or schema that can be represented as associative networks, with each central value linked to a set of attitudes and beliefs

Williams (1979) The criteria of desirability Kohn & Schooler

(1983) The standards of desirability

Hofstede (1980) Broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others

Schwartz & Bilsky (1987)

Concepts or beliefs pertaining to desirable end-states or behaviours, transcending specific situations, guiding

selection or evaluation of behaviours and events and ordered by relative importance

Schwartz (1992) A criterion people use to select and justify actions and to evaluate people (including oneself) and events

Hechter (1993) Relatively general and durable internal criteria for evaluation

Schwartz (1994)

Desirable trans-situational goal, varying in importance that serves as a guiding principle in the life of a person or social entity.

Verplanken & Holland (2002)

Cognitions that may define a situation, elicit goals and guide actions