A
b
s
t
r a c
t
JA
M
E
S A
.N
I L
SO
N
.T
h
eI
nfl
u e n c e of N
at
u r al O
rg
a ni
cM
at
te r
(
N O
M )
C
om
p
o si
t
io n
o nN
a n ofi lt
r at
io
n
P
e rf
o rm
a n c e :N O
M
R
ej
e ct
i
o n a nd
P
e rm
e at
eF l
u x(
U
nd
e rt
h
ed i
r e ct
io n
of
F
r a n ci
sA
.D i G i
a n o)
.N
a n ofi l
t
r at
io n
(
N
F
)
i
s r e c ei
vi
ng
i
n c r e a s ed
att
e nti
o nfo r
d
ri
nk i
ng
w
at
e r ap p
l i
c at
io n s
d
u
et
ot
h
eh i
g
h
c ap
ab i l i
t
i
e s of
th
ep
r o c e s sf
o r r em
o vin
g
N
O
M
a nd
t
h
e r ela
t
ed d i
sin
f
e ct
io n
b
y
¬p
r od
u ct
sF
u rt
h
e r u nd
e r sta n
di
ng
of
t
h
ef
a ct
o r st
h
at
i
nfl
u e n c eN
F
m
em
b
r an
ep
e rf
o rm
an
c ei
s n e c e s s a ry
t
o op
t
i m iz e
t
h
ep
r o c e s s.T
h
e ob
j
e ct
iv e s o
f
t
h i
s r e s e a r ch w
e r et
o e x am
i
n et
h
ee
f f
e ct
s of N O
M
c om
p
o si
t
io n
o nt
h
ep
e rf
o rm
a n c e of
a n an
ofi l
t
r at
i
o nm
em b
r an
e.T
h
ec o
m
p
o sit
i
on
of N
O
M
w
a sm
an
i
p
u
l
at
ed b
y
fi
"a c
t
io n a
t
io
n
in t
oh
y
dr o
p
h i l i
c an
d h
y
dr o
p h
ob i
cc o
m
p
o n en t
s a nd
p
r et
r e at
m
e nt
w i
t
h
p
ow de r e
d
a ct
i
v at
ed
c a rb
o n(
P
A
C
)
.M
em
b
r an
ep
e rf
o rm
an
c ew
a s e v al
u at
ed
a c c o rd i
ng
t
ot
h
e r ej
e ct
i
o n of N
O
M
f
r om
t
h
ef
e ed w
at
e r an
d
t
h
et
im
ed
ep
e nd
e nt
d
e cl i
n ei
np
e rm
e ate
w
at
e rfl
u x .N
F
e xp
e ri m
e nt
sw
e r e c o ndu c
t
ed
u sin
g
ab
e n ch
s c al
e sy
st
em
a r r a ng
ed i
nb
at
ch
, r e cy
cle
m
od
e.O p
e r at
i
o n al l y d
efi
n ed h y d
r op h
ob ic
an
d h
y
d
ro
p h i l i
cN O
M
w
a s ob
t
ai
n ed b
y
fi
-a c
t
i
o n at
i
o n of
th
eN O
M
u sin
g X A D
-8
r e sin
.
I
nt
h
eP A C p
r et
r e at
m
e nt
, a
fi
x ed d
o s ag
e of
P
A C
a nd
v a ri
ed
c o nt
a ct
ti m
e sw
e r e u s ed
.T
h
eN
O
M
s ol
ut
io n s u s e
d
a sN
F
f
e ed w
at
e r sw
e r ed i l
ut
ed
t
ot
h
e s am
eT
O
C
c o n c e nt
r ati
o ni
n o rd
e rto
d
et
e rm
i
n et
h
e ef f
e ct
s of N
O
M
c o
m
p
o si
t
i
o n o nt
h
eN
F p
e rf
o rm
a n c e.T h
eh
y
d
r op h
ob i
cN O
M
w
a sm
o r eh i
g
h l
y
r ej
e ct
ed b
y t
h
eN
F
m
em
b
r a n e st
h
an t
h
eh
y
d
r op h i l i
cN O
M
.R
e s ult
si
nd ic a
t
ed
t
h
at t
h
e r ej
e ct
io n
of
t
h
eN O
M
f
r a ct
io
n
sw
a sh i
g
h l
y
in
fl
u e n c ed b
y t
h
eN O
M
h
y
d
r op
h
ob i
ci
t y
, a sw
el l
a sth
e ap p
a r e nt
m
ol
e c ul
a rw
e
i
g
h
t
d i
st
ri b
ut
i
o n(
A
M W
D
)
of
t
h
eN O
M
.I
n c r e a s ed
P
A C
c o nt
a ct
t
i m
ei
np
r et
r e at
m
e nt
r e s ult
ed
in
ad
e c r e a s ed
r ej
e ct
i
o n of
t
h
eN O
M
r em
ain
i
ng
i
n s olu
t
i
o n .D i f f
e r e n c e sin
th
e r ej
e ct
i
on
o
f N O
M
fi
-o
m
t
h
eP
A C
p
r et
r e at
ed
s ol
ut
i
o n sw
e r ep
ri m
a ri l
y
d
u et
od i f f
e r e n c e si
nt
h
eA
M W
D
s of
t
h
eN O
M
.T
h
eh
y
d
r op
h
ob i
cN O
M
c a u s ed
s ub
sta n
t
ia
l
p
e rm
e ate
fl
u xd
e cl i
n e;
th
eh
y
d
r op
h i l i
cN O
M
c a u s ed
n op
e rm
e at
efl
u xd
e cl i
n e;
a nd
un
fi
-a c
t
io n a
t
ed N O
M
c a u s ed
th
em
o r e e xt
e n si
v efl
u xd
e cl i
n eth
a n ei
th
e r of
t
h
etw
oN O
M
f
r a ct
io n s
.I
n c r e a s ed
P A
C
c o n
t
a ct t
i m
ei
np
r et
r e atm
e nt
r e s ul
te
d i
ng
r e at
e rp
e rm
e at
efl
u xd
e cl i
n e c a u s ed b
y t
h
eN O
M
r e
m
ai
nin
g
in
s olu
t
io n
.R
e s ul
ts s u
g g
e st
ed
t
h
at
th
eh i
g
h
m
ol
e c ul
a rw
ei g h
t
N O
M (
i
.e.,T
a
b
l
e o
f C
o n
t
e n
t
s
P
ag
eL i
st
of T
ab l
e sv
i
L
i
st
of F i
g
u
r e s vi i
A
ck
n
ow l
ed
g
em
e nt
sx
1
.I
n
t
r od
u
ct
io
n
1
1
.1 O b
j
e ct
i
v e s2
2
.B
a ck g
r ou
nd
3
2
.1
.C h
a r a ct
e ri
z ati
o n a nd T
r e at
ab
i l i
t
y
of
N
at
u r al O
rg
a nic
M
at t
e r3
2
.1
.1
.F
r a ct
i
o n at
i
o n of N O
M
b
y
A d
s o rp t
i
o n o nt
oX A
D
-
8 R
e sin
4
2
.1
.2
.F
r a ct
i
o n at
i
o n of N O
M
A
c c o rd in
g
to
M
ol
e c ul
a rW
ei gh
t
5
2
.1
.3
.A d
s o rp
t
i
o n of N O
M
o nt
oA
ct
iv a
t
ed C
a rb
o n7
2
.2
.N
a n of
il
tr a
t
io n
8
2
.2
.1
.M
e ch
a ni
sm
s of So
l
v e nt
a nd
S
ol
ut
eT
r a n sp
o rt
10
2
.2
1.
1.
So
l
v e nt a
nd So
l
ut
eT
r a n sp
o rt
i
nU F
M
em b
r an
e s1 0
2
.2
.1
.2
.So
l
v e nt
an
d So
l
ut
eT
r a n sp
o rt
i
nR
O
M
em b
r an e s12
2
.2
.2
.P
e rm
e at
eF
lu x
D
e cl i
n ei
nM
em b
r a n eP
r o c e s s e s1 5
2
.2
.2
.1
.C
o n c e nt
r at
i
o nP
ola r
i
z at
io n
a nd C
ak
eL
ay
e rF
o rm
ati
o n17
2
.2
.2
.2
.M
em b
r a n eF
o ul i
ng
2
0
2
.2
.2
.3
.A
n al
y
si
s of C
ak
eL
ay
e rD
ep
o si
t
a nd
F
o ula n
t
M
at
e ri
al
2 5
2
.2
.3
.S
ol
ut
eSe
p
a r at
io n
in
M
em b
r a n ePr o c
e
s s e s2 5
2
.2
.3
.1.
F
a ct
o r sI
nf l
u e n ci
ng
So
l
ut
eR
ej
e
ct
i
o ni
nU l
t
r afi l
t
r at
i
o n2 6
2
.2
.3
.2
.F
a ct
o r sI
nfl
u e n ci
ng S
ol
u
t
eR
ej
e
ct
i
o ni
nR
e v e r s eO
sm
o si
s2
8
2 2
.4
.A
cti
v ate
d
C
a rb
o n a nd
M
em
b
r a n eT
r e atm
e nt
3 0
3
.M
et
h
od
s an
d
M
at
e ri
al
s3 2
3
.1
.P
r ep
a r at
io n
a nd C h
a r a ct
e ri
z at
io n
of N O
M
So
lu
t
i
o n sf
o rN
a n of
ilt
r at
io n
E
xp
e ri m
e nt
s3
2
3
.1
.1
.R
aw
W
at
e rSo u r c e a n
d
P
r ep
a r at
i
o n3 2
3
.1
.2
.P
r ep
a r at
io n
of X A
D
-
8
F
r a ct
i
o n at
ed N O
M
S
olu
t
i
o n s3 4
3
.1
.3
.P
r ep
a r at
i
o n of P
A
C P
r et
r e at
ed N
O
M
S
ol
ut
i
o n s3 8
3
.1
.4 A d
s o rp t
i
o n of H
y
dr o
p h
ob i
c,
H
y
dr o
p h i l i
c, a nd U
n
fr a c
t
io n a
t
e
d
3
.1
.5
.C h
a ract
e ri
z at
i
on of
N
O
M
b
y
A
p p
ar ent
M
ol
e cul
a rW
ei g h
t
D
i
stri b
ut
io n
4 2
3
.1
.5
.1.
D
et
e rm
i
n at
i
on
of A
M
W
D
4 2
3
.1
.5
.2
.G
e n e r al
C
o n si d
e r at
i
o n sf
o rA
M W
D
C
h
a r a ct
e riz a
t
i
o n4 3
3
.1
.6
.S
p
e ci f
i cA
n al
y
s e s :T O C
,
U V A b
s o rb
a n c e,C
o ndu c
t
iv
i
t y
,a n
d T
u rb i d i
t y
4 4
3
.2
.N
an
of i l
tr a
t
io n
E
xp
eri m
e nt
s4 6
3
.2
.1
.N
an
of
il
t
r at
i
o nS y
st
em
C
o nf
ig
u r ati
o n a nd
O p
e r at
io n
4 6
3
.2
.2
.N
an
of
il
t
r at
i
o nM
em b
r a n eM
at
e ria
l
4 9
3
.2
.3
.P
r o c ed
u r ef
o rN
a n of
il
t
r at
i
o nE
xp
e ri m
e nt
s5 1
3
.2
.4
.M
et
h
od
of A
n al
y
si
s
f
o rP
e rm
e at
eF l
u xD
at
a5 5
4
.R
e s ul t
s an
d D
i
s c u s si
o n5 7
4
.1 N
an
of i l
t
r at
i
o n of
th
eF
r a ct
io n a
t
ed
a nd U
nf
r a ct
i
o n at
ed N O
M
S
ol
ut
io n s
5 7
4
.1
.1 C h
a r a ct
e ri
st
i
c s of
t
h
eH
y
d
r op h
ob i
c,H
y
dr o
p h i l i
c,a
n
d U
nfr a c
ti
o n at
ed N O
M
So
l
ut
io n s
5 7
4
.1
.2 N
a n of
ilt
e rP
e rf
o rm
a n c e :C
o nt
r ol Stu
dy
6 1
4
.1
.3 N
an
of
il
t
e rP
e rf
o rm
an
c e :R
ej
e ct
io
n
of T O C
6 4
4
.1
.4
N
a n of
ilt
e rP
e rf
o rm
a n c e :R
ej
e ct
i
o n of C
o nd
u ct
iv e
I
o n s7 0
4
.1
.5 N
an
of i l
t
e rP
e rf
o rm
a n c e :P
e rm
e at
eF l
u xB
eh
a vi
o r7 4
4
.1
.5
.1 P
e rm
e at
eF
l
u xd
u ri
ng
t
h
eN
a n of i l
t
r at
io n
of
N O
M
So
lu
t
i
o n s7 4
4
.1
.5
.2 R
e c ov
e ry
of P
e rm
e ate
F
l
u
xd
u et
oH V R
7 9
4
.1
.5
.3
P
e rm
e at
eF
l
u xD
e cl in e
d
u et
oF
o ul in
g
8 1
4
.1
.6 C
om p
a ri
s o n of T O C R
ej
e ct
i
o n a nd
P
e rm
e at
eF l
ux
D
e cl i
n e8 4
4
.1
.7 I
m
p
l i
c at
io n s o
f
R
e s ult
s :N
F E
xp
e ri m
e nt
sw
i
t
h
F
r a ct
i
on
at
ed
a n
d U
n
fr
a ct
i
o n at
ed N O
M
S
ol
ut
io n s
86
4
.2 N
an
of
il
tr a
t
io
n of
P
A C P
r et
r e at
ed S
olu
t
i
o
n s8 8
4
.2
.1 P
A C P
r et
r e at
m
e nt
of N O
M
So
l
ut
io n s
8 8
4
.2
.2 A d
s o rp t
i
o n of
H y
d
r op
h i l i
c,H
y
dr o
p
h
ob i
c, an
d
U
nf
r a ct
i
o n at
ed N O
M
o nt
oP
A C
9 2
4
.2
.3 N
a n of
ilt
e rP
e rf
o rm
a
n c e :R
ej
e ct
i
o n of T O C
9 5
4
.2
.4
N
a n of i lt
e rP
e rf
o rm
a n c e :P
e rm
e at
eF
lu x
B
eh
a vi
o r10 0
4
.2
.4
.1
P
e rm
e at
eF
l
u xd
uri
ng
th
eN
an
of
il
t
r at
io n
of N
O
M
So
l
ut
io n s
10 0
4
.2
.4
.2 R
e c o v e ry
of P
e rm
e at
eF l
u xd
u et
oH V
R
10 2
4
.2
.4
.3
P
e rm
e at
eF
lu x
D
e cl i
n ed
u et
oF
o ul i
ng
10
2
4
.2
.5
I
m
p l i
c at
i
o n s of R
e s ul
t
s :N
F E
xp
e ri
m
e nt
sw i
t
h
4
.3 C
om
p
a
ri
s o n of
R
e s ul
t
sf
r om N
F E
xp
e ri m
e nt
sU
si
ng
F
r a ct
io n a
t
ed
an
d U
nf
r a ct
i
o n at
ed N O
M
So
l
uti
o n sa n
d
P
A
C P
r et
r e at
ed N
O
M
S
olu
t
i
o n s1 1 0
5
.0 C
o n cl
u
si
on
s a nd
R
e c om
m
e nd
at i
on
s1 12
5
.1
C
o n cl
u
si
o n s1 1 2
5
.1
.1 N
a n of
ilt
e rR
ej
e ct
io n
of N
O
M
1 1 2
5 1
.2
P
e rm
e at
eF
l
u xB
eh
a vio r a n
d
F
o ul i
ng
of N
a n ofi l
t
e r1 1 2
5
.2 R
e c om
m
e nd
ati
o n sf
o rF
u rth
e rR
e s e a r ch
1 1 4
R
ef
e r en c e s
1 16
A
p p
e nd ix
A
Co
m
p
a ri
s o n of
T
O C C
o n c e ntr a
t
io n
a nd U
V
A b
s o rb
a n c eD
at
af
o rL is
t
o
f T
ab le s
T
ab l
eP
ag
e3
.1
T
a rR
i
v e rW
at
e rQ
u al i
t y C
h
a r a ct
e ri
st
i
c s3 3
3
.2
E
xp
e ri
m
e nt
al C
o nd i
ti
o n sf
o rA d
s o rp t
io n
of Fr a c
ti
o n ate
d
a nd
U
nf
r a cti
o n at
ed N
O
M
o nt
oP
A
C
4 1
3
.3
S
y
st
em
O
p
e r at
in
g C
o nd it
i
o n sf
o rN
a n of
ilt
r ati
o nE
xp
e ri m
e nt
s4
8
3
.4
C h
a r a ct
e ri
st
i
c s of
th
eN
an
of
il
tr a
t
io n
M
em b
r an
e s4 9
4
.1
F
e ed
W
at
e rC h
a r a ct
e ris
t
i
c sf
o rN
a n of
il
t
r at
i
o nE
xp
e ri m
e nt
sw i
th
F
r a cti
o n ate
d
a nd U
nf
r a ct
i
o n at
e
d N O
M
So
lu
t
i
o n s5 9
4
.2
F
ee
d
W
at
e rC h
a r a ct
e ris
t
i
c sf
o rN
a n of
il
t
r at
i
o nE
xp
e ri m
e nt
sw i
th
L
i
st
o
f F i g
u r e sF
i
g
u r eP
ag
e2
.1
C la s s
i fi
c a
t
i
o n of
n at
u
r al
o rg
a ni
cm
at t
e r(
T h
u rm
a n19
8 5
)
.4
2
.2
P
o r e si
z e r a ng
e s of m
i
c r of
ilt
r ati
o n, ul
tr a
f
ilt
r ati
o n , n a n of
il
t
r at
i
o n, a nd
r e v e r s e o s
m
o sis
m
em b
r a n e s(W
ie s n e r
19
9 3
)
.9
2
.3
F l
ow
of
m
a c r om
ole c u
l
e s,
p
a rti
cle s
, a nd w
at
e rt
hr o u
gh
ap
o r o u sm
em
b
r a n e.1 1
2
.4
W
at
e r a nd
s ol
ute
t
r a n sp
o rt
t
hr o u
g
h
a n o n-p
o r o u sm
em
b
r an
e : a r ep
r e s e nt
at
i
o n of
t
h
e s ol
ut
i
o n -d i f fu s
i
o nm
e ch
a ni
sm
.
13
2
.5
C
o n c e ntr a
t
io n
p
ol
a ri
z at
io n
a nd
c ak
el
ay
e rf
o rm
at
io n
d
u rin
g
m
em
b
r an
ef
ilt
r at
io n
.16
3
.1
Sc
h
em
at
i
cdi
ag
r am f
o rt
h
ep
r ep
a r at
io n
of
t
h
ef
r a ct
i
o n at
ed
a nd
u n
f
r a cti
o n at
ed N O
M
s ol
ut
io n s
.3 5
3
.2
Sc
h
e
m
at
i
c
d i
ag
ra
m f
o rt
h
e
p
re
p
a
r at
io
n o
f P A C p
r et
r e at
ed
s
ol
u
t
io
n s.3 9
3 3
S
ch
em
at
i
cd i
ag
r am
of
n a n of
ilt
r at
i
o n sy
st
em
.4 7
3
.4
P
ol
y
s ul f
o n em
o n om
e r sh
ow i
ng p
o s si b l
e si
t
ef
o r at t
a ch
m
en
t
o
f
a ch
a rg
ed f
u n ct
io n a
l
g
r o up
.5 0
3
.5
F
lo
w d i
a
g
r am
of
p
r o c ed
u r e sf
o rN
F
e xp
e ri m
e nt
s.5 1
3
.6
P
e rm
e at
e
f l
u xd
u
ri
n
g P
W
P
t
e st
: e st
ab l ish i
ng t
h
eP
WP b
a s el i
n e.5 2
4
.1
A
M W
D
s of fr
a ct
i
o n ate
d
an
d
u nfr a c
ti
o n ate
d N O
M
in
N
F
f
e ed
s ol
ut
io n s
.5 8
4
.2
P
e rm
e at
e
f l
u xd
u ri
ng
N F
e xp
e ri m
e nt
w i
t
h
o rg
a nic
-f
r e e c o n
t
r ol
s olu
t
i
o n.6 2
4
.3
R
ej
e ct
i
o n of
c o nd
u cti
v ei
o n sd
u rin
g
N
F
e xp
e ri m
e nt
w i
t
h
o rg
ei ni
cfr e e c o n
t
r ol
s ol
ut
io n
.6 2
4
.4
R
ej
e ct
i
on
of
T
O C i
n
N
F
of fr
a ct
io
n
at
ed
a nd
u nfr
a ct
io
n
at
ed
4
.5
C
om
p
ari
so n of
p
e rm
eat
eT O C
con
c ent
rati
on
s at
end
of
N
F
e xp
e ri
m
en t
sa n
d fr o
m
I k U
F
fr a c
ti
o n at
i
o n s.6 6
4 6
C
om
p
a ri
s o n of
th
eT
O
C
c o n c e nt
r at
io n
a nd U
V
ab
s o rb
a n c ed
at
af
o rt
h
eN
F
e x
p
e rim
e nt
w i
t
h
t
h
eh
y
dr o
p
h i l i
cN O
M
s olu
t
i
o n.7
1
4
.7
R
ej
e ct
io n
of
c o nd
u ct
iv e
i
o n sd
u rin
g
N
F
of fr
a ct
i
o
n at
ed
an
d
u nf
r a ct
io n a
t
ed
N O
M
s ol
ut
io n s a n
d
t
h
e o rg
a nic
-F
r e e c o nt
r ol
s olu
t
i
o n.
7 3
4
.8
P
e rm
e at
ef l
u x v e r s u st
i
m
ef
o rN
F
e xp
e ri m
e nt
sw i
t
h fr
a ct
io n a
t
ed
an
d
u n
fr
a cti
o n at
ed
N
O
M
s ol
ut
i
o n s.7 5
4
.9
P
e rm
e at
ef l
u xb
ef
o r e a nd
aft
e rH V
R
, a nd
aft
e r ch
em
i
c al
cl
e an
i
ng
of
t
h
em
em
b
r an
e s :N F
e xp
e
ri m
e nt
sw i
t
h f
r a ct
i
o n at
ed
a nd
u nfr
a ct
i
o n at
ed N O
M
S
olu
t
i
o n s.8 0
4
.1 0
M
a s s of T O C
r e c o v e r ed i
nm
em b
r a n ew
a sh w
at
e r aft
e rN F
e xp
e ri m
e nt
sw i
t
h fr
a ct
io
n ate
d
an
d
u nf
r a ct
io
n at
ed N O
M
s olu
t
io n s
.82
4
.1 1
A
M W
D
s of N
O
M
s ol
ut
io n s a
ft
e rP
A
C
p
r et
r e at
m
e nt
(
b
ef
o r ed i lu
t
i
o n)
.9 0
4
.12
A
M W
D
s of
P
A C
p
r et
r e at
ed
s ol
uti
o n s aft
e rd
i l
ut
i
o nt
oth
e s am
eT
O
C
c o n c e n
t
r ati
o n .9 0
4
.1
3
P
e r c e nt
of T O C
r em
ain
i
ng
aft
e r ad
s o rp t
i
o n of f
r a ct
i
o n at
ed
a nd
u n
f
r a ct
i
o n at
ed N O
M
o nP A C
: s et
1
.(
i
ni
t
i
al T O C
c o n c e n
t
r at
i
o n=
12 m
g
/ 1
,1
=
0
.
0 5
,P
A C d
o s e=
2
0 0 m
g
/1
)
.9 3
4
.14
P
e r c e nt
of T O C
r em
a
in
i
ng
aft
e
r ad
s o rp
ti
o n of f
ra
ct
i
o na
t
ed
a nd
u
n
f
r a ct
i
o n ate
d N O
M
o nP
A
C
: s et 2
.(
in
i
t
ia
l
T
O C
c o n c e n
fr
at
i
o n=
2 8 m
g
/ 1
,1
=
0
.0
2
,P
A C d
o s e=
5 0 0 m
g
/ 1
)
.9 3
4
.1 5
R
ej
e ct
io n
of T O C d
u rin
g
N F
of
P
A C p
r et
r e at
ed
s ol
ut
io n s
.9 6
4
.1
6
C
om
p
a ris o n
of
p
e rm
e at
eT
O C
c o n c e nt
r ati
o n sfr
om
th
eN
F
e xp
e ri m
e nt
sa n
d
t
h
eI
k
a nd
3 k
U F f
r a ct
io n a
t
io n s u s
i
ng t
h
eP A
C
p
r et
r e at
ed
s ol
uti
on
s.9 7
4
.1 7
P
e rm
e at
ef l
u x v e r s u st
i m
ef
o rN F
e xp
e ri
m
e nt
sw i
t
h
P
A C p
r et
r e at
ed
s
o
lu
t
i
o n s.10 1
4
.1 8
P
e rm
e at
efl
u xb
ef
o r e a nd
aft
e rH V
R
, a n
d
aft
e r ch
em
ic a
l
cl
e a ni
ng
of N
F
4
.1 9
M
a s s of T O C
re c o v e r ed
i
n
m
em
b
ran
ew
a sh
w
ate
r aft
erN
F
exp
e ri
m
en t
sw it
h P A C
p
r et
r e at
e
d
s ol
ut
io n s
.10
5
4
.2 0
A
M W
D
of N O
M
i
nm
em b
r a n ew
a sh
w
ate r a n
d
f
e ed
s ol
ut
i
o nf
o rN
F
e x
p
e ri m
e nt
w it
h
n o n-p
r et
r e at
ed N O
M
s olu
t
i
o n.10 7
A
.l
C
om
p
a ri
s o n of
T O
C
c o n c e ntr a
t
io n
a nd U V
ab
s o rb
a n c e(
at 2
5 4
nm
)
o
f f
e ed
a nd
p
e rm
e at
e s ol
ut
io n s
f
r om N
F
e xp
e
ri
m
e nt
sw i
th
t
h
e :a
)
h
y
d
r op
h i l i
cN O
M
s olu
t i
o n;
b
)
h y
d
r op
h
ob i
cN
O
M
s olu
t
i
o n;
a nd
c
)
u nfr
a ct
i
o n at
ed N O
M
s ol
uti
o n .1 2 5
A
.2
C
om
p
a ri
s o n of T O C
c o n c e nt
r at
io n
a nd U V
a
b
s o rb
a
n ce
(
a
t
2 5 4
nm
)
o
f b
ul k
a nd
p
e rm
e at
e s olu
t
i
o n sf
r om U
F
fr a c
t
io n a
t
io n
of
: a)
h
y
dr o
p h i l i
cN
O
M
s ol
uti
o n;
b
)
h
y
d
r op h
ob i
cN
O
M
s ol
uti
o n;
a nd
c)
u nf
r a ct
i
o n ate
d
A
c
k
n o
w
l
e
d g
m
e n
t
s
I w
ou
l d f
i r st
l i k
et
ot
h
a nk
m
y
ad
vi
s o r,D
r .F
r a n ci
sA
.D
i G i
a n o .T
h
a nk
y
o u al
s ot
oth
er e a
d
e r s of
th i
s r ep
o rt
.D
r.R
u s s el l
F
.C h
ri
st
m
a n a nd
D
r.P h
i
l
i
p C
.S
i
ng
e r.S
p
e ci
al
th
a nk
sg
ot
oA
n n eB
r ag
h
et t
af
o rh
e r c o nt
in u a
l
g
ui d
an
c e a nd
s up p
o rt
d
u
ri
n
g
t
h i
sr e s e a r c
h
.I w
o ul d
al
s ol i k
eto
th
a nk
B
r u c eU
tn e
fo r
h i
s ef fo r
t
si
nt
h
e e a rl y
st
ag
e s of
o u rm
em
b
r a n ew
o rk
.A
p p
r e ci
at
i
on
i
s e xte n
d
ed
t
oC
.L
.L
a s si
t
e r a nd C
a r ol G
a rd
e nf
o r s ol
vi
ng
m
y
b
u r e a u c r at
ic
p
r ob l
em
s an
d R
an
d
y
G
o od m
an
f
o rso
lv
i
ng
m
y
m
e ch
a ni
c al
eq
ui
p
m
e nt p
ro
b l
em
s.A l
s o ,t
h
a nk
sto
al l
t
h
eb
a s em
e nt
dw
el l
e r sw h
ok
ep
t
m
ela u
g
h in
g
.T
h i
s r e s e a r ch w
a sf ii n
d
ed b
y t
h
eU
nit
ed S
t
ate s
P
ub l i
cH
e al
t
h Se r v
i
c e(
G
r ant
N
o.1 A 0 3
A H O10 4 2
-0 1
a n
d
1
A 0 3 A H O1 0 52
-0 1
)
a
nd
t
h
eW
at
e rR
e s o u r c e sR
e s e a r ch
I
n st
it
ut
e of
1
.I
n
t
r o
d
u c
t i
o n
T
h
en
e ed f
o r r em
o vi
ng
n atu r a
l
o rg
an
ic
m
at
e ri
al
(
N
O
M
)
fr
om d
rin
k i
ng w
ate r
h
a sg
r ow
n
w i
t
h
t
h
e r eg
ul
at
i
o n of d i
sin
f
e ct
i
o nb
y
-p
r od
u ct
s(
D
B
F
s)
.R
eg
ula
ti
o n s o nt
ri h
alo
m
eth
a n e(
T H
M )
l
e v el
sw
e r ef
i r st
ad
op t
ed i
n19 7 9 w i
th
am
e nd m
e nt
sto
t
h
eS
af
eD
ri
nk i
ng
W
at
e rA
ct
.T h
e r e c e nt
l
y p
r op
o s ed
D
i
sin
f
e cta n
t
-D
i
s
i
nf
e ct
io n
B y
-P
r odu c
t
(
D
-D B P
)
R
ule c a
l l
sf
o rl
ow
e rl i
m
i
t
s on
T
H
M
s a nd
ot
h
e rD
B F
s.T
h i
sle
g i
sl
at
i
on
h
a sb
r ou
g
h
t
g
r e at
e r at t
en
t
i
o nt
ot
e ch
n
ol
og i
e s c ap
ab l
e of h i
g
h l
e v el
s of N O
M
r em
o v al in
d
rin
k i
ng
w
ate r
p
l
a nt
s.M
em b
r an
efi l
t
r at
i
o n,
w i d
el
y
u s ed f
o rd
e s al i
n ati
o n of dr
i
nk i
ng
w
at
e r,i
s n ow
r e c eiv
i
ng
c o n s
i d
e r at
io n
a s at
r e at
m
e nt
p
r o c e s sf
o rt
h
e r em
o v al
of p
a rt
i
c ul
ate a n
d
o rg
a ni
cm
at t
e r.T
h
eE
F A
(
1 9 9
4
)
h
a s r ep
o rt
ed
p
r ed ic
t
io n s
t
h
at
,d
u et
ot
h
e n ew
D
-
D B F R
u
l
e, a sm
an
y
a s2
6 p
e r c e nt
of
t
r e at
m
e nt
p l
a nt
sw i
t
h
s u rf
a c ew
at
e r s o u r c e s and
ei
g
h
t p
e r c e nt
of
t
r e at
m
e nt
p
l
a nt
sw i
t
h g
r o u nd w
ate r s o u r c e s
w i l l
ut
i h
z em
em br a n e
te c
hn
olo
g i
e sw i
t
h i
nt
h
e n e xt
t
e ny
e a r s.(
T h
em
aj
o ri
t y
of
th
e s ep
la n
t
s,
b
y
f
a r,w
o ul d
s e r v e c om
m
u ni
t
ie s
w i
t
h
p
op
ul
at
i
o n sle s s
t
h
an
1 0
,0 0 0
.)
T
w
om
ain
m
e a s u r e s of m
em b
r a n ep
e rf
o rm
a n c e a r et
h
e r ej
e cti
o n(
i
.e., r e
m
o v al
)
c a
p
ab i l i
t
ie s a n
d
t
h
ef lu x
of
p
r od
u ct
w
at
e rt
hr o u
g
h
t
h
em
em b
r a n e.O
p t
im
iz a
t
io n
of
t
h
e
s ep
e rf
o rm
a n c ec
h
a r a ct
e ri
st
ic s
is r e
q
uir e
d f
o rth
e ef f
i cie n
t
u s e of m
em b
r a n et
r e at
m
e nt
.N
a n of
ilt
r at
io n
(
N F
)
i
s alo
w p
r e s s u r em
em b
r an
ep
r o c e s st
h
at
i
s c ap
ab l
e of h i g h l
e v el
s of
N O
M
r em
o v al
.P
r e vi
ou
s r e s e a r ch
r eg
a rdi
ng
N O
M
r em
o v al b
y
N F h
a sm
ai
nl
y
f
o c u s ed
on
t
h
em
ole c u
l
a rw
ei
g
h
t
c ut
of
f
(
M
W
C O
)
of
t
h
em
em b
r a n e s n e c e s s a ry
t
o a ch
i
e v e c e rt
ain
w
at
e rq
u al i
t y
c ri
t
e ri
a.H
ow
e v e r, s e v e r al fa c
t
o r s oth
e rt
h
an
M W
C O
c a ni
nf lu e n c e
th
er e
m
o v al
of N O
M
b
y
N F
;
f
o r e x am
p
l
e, s o u r c e
w
at
e rq
u al i
t y
,m
em
b
r a n em
at
e ri
al
, a nd
N O
M
f
r a ct
i
o n sw
o ul d
b
e ap
o o r c a nd
i d
at
ef
o rN
F t
r e at
m
e nt
o r r eq
ui
r ep
r et
r e at
m
e nt t
oi m p
r o v ep
r od
u ct
w
at
e rq
u al
i
t y
T h
e r ej
e ct
i
o n of N
O
M
al
s od
ep
e nd
s o nh
ow
t
h
eN O
M
f
r a ct
i
o n si
nt
e r a ct
w i
t
h
t
h
em
em b
r a n em
at
e ri
al
.A b
et t
e r u nd
e r st
an
d i
ng
of
t
h
e r el
at
i
o nb
etw
e e nN O
M
c om p
o sit
i
o n a nd
r ej
e ct
i
o ni
s n e c e s s a ry t
o op
t
i m i
z eN
F p
r o c e s s e s.T h
e a c c um
ul
at
i
o n of N O
M
o n o rw i
th i
nt
h
em
em b
r a n ed
u ri
ng
N
F
h
a sb
e e n sh
ow
n t
oc a u s e a r e
d
u ct
i
o ni
nt
h
ef l
u x of w
at
e rt
h
r o ug
h
t
h
em
em b
r a n e, r ef
e r r ed
t
o a sp
e rm
e at
ef l
u xd
e cl i
n e.T
om
ai
nt
ai
np
e rm
e at
ef l
u x,p
um p i
ng
r eq
ui
r em
e
nt
si
nc
r e a se
a nd
e v e nt
u al l y
m
em
b
r a n e cl
e an
i
ng
i
s n e c e s s a ry
.A l
s o,t
h
e u s ef
ul l i f
et
i m
e of
am
em b
r a n ei
s r ed
u c ed
w h
e np
e rm
e at
ef l
u x c a nn
ot
b
e r e st
o r ed b
y
cl
e a ni
ng
.D
et
e rm
i
n at
i
o no
f
t
h
eN O
M
f
r a ct
i
o n sr e s
p
o n si b l
ef
o rp
e rm
e at
ef l
u xd
e cl i
n ei
s n e ed
ed
t
o a s s e s sth
e ap p
l i
c ab i l i
t y
o
f N F
t
r e at
m
e nt
t
o a s o u r c ew
at
e r a nd
s ui
ta
b i l i
t y
of
p
r et
r e atm
e nt
s ch
em
e s.F
u rt
h
e rk
n
ow l
ed
g
e of h
ow
N O
M
a s s o ci
at
e sw i
t
h
t
h
em
em
b
r a n e c a nb
e u s ed
t
o op
t
i m i
z et
h
et y p
e a nd f
r eq
u e n cy
of
m
em
b
r a n e cl
e a ni
ng
.1
.1
.O b
j
e c
t i
v e s
T
h
e ob
j
e ct
i
v e s of
t
h i
s r e s e a r ch w
e r et
o e x am i
n et
h
e ef f
e ct
s of N O
M
c om
p
o si
t
i
o n o nt
h
ep
e rf
o rm
a n c e of
a n a n ofi l
t
r ati
o nm
em b
r a n e.T
h
e c om
p
o si
t
i
o n of N
O
M
w
a sm
a ni p
u
l
at
ed
b
y
fr
a cti
o n ati
o ni
nt
oh
y
d
r op
h i l i
c a nd h
y
d
r op
h
ob i
c c om
p
o n e nt
s a nd
p
r etr e at
m
e nt
w i
t
h
p
ow d
e r ed
a ct
i
v at
ed
c a rb
o n(
P A C
)
.M
em b
r an
ep
e rf
o rm
a
n c ew
a s e v al
u at
ed
a c c o rd i
ng
t
ot
h
e r ej
e ct
i
o n of N O
M
f
r om
t
h
ef
e ed w
at
e r an
d
th
et
i m
ed
ep
en
d
e nt
d
e cl i
n ei
np
e rm
e at
e
2
.B
a c
k g
r o u n
d
2
.1
.C h
a r a c
t
e r
i
z a
t i
o n
a n
d T
r e a
t
a
b i l it y
o
f N
a
t
u r a
l O
r
g
a n
i
c
M
a
t t
e r
N
at
v i r al
o rg
a ni
cm
at t
e r(
N
O
M )
i
s ag
e n e r al
t
e rm
u s ed
t
od
e s c ri b
et
h
eh
et
e r od i
sp
e r s em
ix
t
u r e of
o rg
a nic
m
ol
e c ul
e st
h
at
a r e ub i
q
ui
to
u
si
n n at
u r al w
ate r s
y
st e
m
s.T h
ep
r e s e n c eo
f N O
M
i
n
d
ri
nk i
n
g
w
at
e r su
p
p
l i
e si
su n
d
e sir a
b l
ef
o r s ev
e r al
r e a s on
s :N O
M
c on t
ri b
u
t
e ss
i g
ni f
i c a nt
l y
to
t
h
e e sth
et
i
c al l
y
u nd
e sir a
b le
q
u al i
t
i
e so
f
c ol
o r,t
a ste
, an
d
od
o r;
N O
M
c a na c
t t
o st
ab i l i
z ep
a rt
ic
l
e s oft
e n a s s o ci
at
ed w i
t
h
m
i
c r ob i
al
c on
t
am
i
n an t
si
nw
at
e r,h in
d
e ri
ng
t
h
e effi
cie n c
y
of
t
r e atm
e nt p
r o c e s s e s; t
r a n sf
o rm
at
io n
of N O
M
in
t
om
o r eb i
od
eg
r ad
ab l
ec o
m
p
o u nd
sb
y t
r e at
m
e nt p
r o c e s s e s(
e.g
., o z o n at
i
o n)
c a n r e s ult
in
m ic r o
b i
al
r eg
r ow
th i
nw
at
e rd i
st
ri b
ut
i
o n sy
st
em
s;
a nd N O
M
c a n r e a ct
w i
th d i
si
nf
e ct
a nt
s,f
o rm
i
ng p
ot
e nt
i
al l
y
h
a z a rd
o u sd i
sin
f
e cti
o nb
y
-p
r od
u ct
s(
D
B
F
s)
.T h
ep
r op
o s al f
o rin c r e a s
in
g
l
y
st
ric
t
r e
g
ula
t
io n s o n
D B F
sh
a sm
o st
r e c e nt
l
y
s e r v ed
a st
h
ei m p
et
u sf
o r ap p l y i
ng
m
e
m b
r an
ep
r o c e s s e sf
o rt
h
e r em
o v al
of N O
M
.N
O
M
i
sd
e ri
v ed p
ri m
a ri l
y
f
r om
t
h
ed
e c om
p
o si
t
i
o n of p l
a nt
a nd
a ni
m
al
m
at
e ria
l
s a nd
g
e n e r al l
y
e nt
e r s aq
u at
ic
sy
st
em
si
n r u n of f
,t
h
o ug
h
al
g
a e c a nb
e a s ub
st
an t
i
al
a u
t
o ch
t
h
o n o u s s o u r ce
of N O
M
.C h
em i
c al
p
ro
p
e rti
e s of N O
M
v a ry
si g
ni fi
c a nt
l
y
w i
t
h i
n as
i
ng
l
e s ou
r c e a nd f
r om
o n e so
u r c eto
a n ot
h
e r.T h
e ch
em i
c al
st
r u ct
u
r e of
t
h
em
aj
o ri
t y
of
N O
M
is u n
k
n
ow
n
.T h
em
ole c u
l
a rw
ei gh
t
of
t
h
e s e c om
p
o u nd
s c a n r a ng
efr
om
l
e s st
h
a n1
0 0
t
om
o r et
h
a n10 0
,0 0 0 d
al
t
o n s.T h
e e xt
r em
el
y
c om
p
l
e x a nd h
et
e r og
e n o u sc o
m p
o sit
i
o n of N O
M
h
a s n ot
al l
ow
ed
t
h
e s ep
a r at
i
o n of
t
h i
sm
at
e ria
l i
nt
ow h
at
c o ul d b
et
e rm
ed
"p
u r e"g
r o up
in
g
s of
ch
em
i
c al
s(M
a cC
a rt
h
y 1
9
8 9
)
.C
h
a r a ct
e ri
z at
io n
of N O
M
2
.1
.1
.F
r a cti
o n at
i
on
of
N O
M
b y
A
d
s o rp
t
i
o n o nt
oX A
D
-8 R
e si
nO
n ew i d
el
y
a c c ep t
ed
m
et
h
od
of
cl
a s si f
y
i
ng
N O
M
r el i
e s o nf
r a ct
i
o n at
i
o n of
th
e o rg
a ni
cm
at
e ri
al b
y
ad
s
o rp
t
io n
ch
r om
at
og
r ap h
y
u si
ng
X A
D
-8
r e si
n, a s
d
e s c ri b
ed b
y
T h
u rm
an
a nd
M
al
c ol
m
(
1
9 8 1
)
.T
h
e v a ri
et
y
of
str u c
t
u r al
c om
p
o n e nt
s a nd
f
u n cti
o n al g
r o up
s a s s o ci
at
ed
w it
h
n at
u r al
o rg
a ni
cm
a c r om
ole c u
le s
g
i
v e st
h
e s em
at
e ri
al
s a r a ng
e of h
y
d
r op
h
ob i
c a nd
i
on
i
cp
r op
e rt
i
e s.O
nt
h
eb
a si
s of
t
h
e s ep
r op
e rt
i
e s,
t
h
eN O
M
c an
b
ed i
vi d
ed in
t
oo
p
e r at
i
o n al l y d
efi
n ed f
r a ct
i
o n s.T h
e cla s s
i f
i c at
i
o n s ch
em
e of N O
M
b
a s ed
o nt
h i
sm
et
h
od
i
s r ep
r e s e nt
ed i
nF i
g
vi r e2
.1
(
T h
u rm
a n19 8 5
)
.N
a
t
u r a
l
O
r
g
a n
i
c
M
a
tt
e r
(
N O M
)
H
y d
r o
p h
o
b
ic
N O
M
(
H
u
m ic s u
b
s
t
a n c e s
)
/
H
u
m
i
c
A
c
id
s
F
u
lv
ic
A
c
id
s
H
y
d
r o
p
h i l ic
N O M
i
\
H y d
r o
p h il i
c
A
c
id
s
Id
e n
tif
i a
b le
C
o
m p
o u n
d
s
F
i
g
u r e2
.1 C l
a s si f
i c at
i
o n of
n at
u r al
o rg
a nic
m
at t
e r(
T
h
u rm
a n1
9 8 5
)
.N O
M
i
sfi
r st
d i
vi d
ed i
nt
oh
y
dr o
p h i l i
c a nd h
y
d
r op
h
ob ic
fr a c
ti
o n sb
y
ad
s o rp
t
i
o n of
t
h
eh y d
r op
h
ob i
cN O
M
o nt
oX A
D
-8
r